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A  TEXT -BOOK  OF 

DOMESTIC    SGIENCii 

MATILDA  €.. CAMPBELL 


A  TEXTBOOK   OF   DOMESTIC    SCIENCE 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO   •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN   &   CO.,  Limited 

LONDON   •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


A  TEXTBOOK  OF 

DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


BY 


MATILDA    G.    CAMPBELL 


f 


INSTRUCTOR  IN  HOME  ECONOMICS,  JESUP  W.   SCOTT  HIGH  SCHOOL,  TOLEDO 

OHIO,  LECTURER  ON  HOME  ECONOMICS,   UNIVERSITY  OF 

CALIFORNIA,    SUMMER    SCHOOL,    1911 


BOSTON  COLLfiGE  LIBRARY 
CHE8TNUT  HILL,  MASS. 

Neto  gork 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

1920 

All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1913, 
By  the   MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  November,  1913. 


NoriDDOti  ^rfgg 

J.  S.  Cashing  Co.  — Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

This  textbook  has  been  compiled  in  response  to  an  ever 
increasing  demand  from  instructors  of  Domestic  Science  for  a 
book  which  can  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  student  to  use 
as  a  laboratory  manual  in  the  school,  and  as  a  practical  cook- 
book in  the  home. 

To  this  end  facts  already  being  taught  in  well-established 
schools  of  Domestic  Science  have  here  been  arranged  in  a 
concise  manner,  but  much  has  been  omitted  that  the  instruc- 
tor will  necessarily  supply  according  to  the  needs  of  her  school 
and  locality.  Sanitation,  chemistry  of  cleaning,  shelter,  and 
many  other  subjects  included  under  the  term  Domestic  Sci- 
ence have  not  been  considered  here,  as  a  proper  treatment  of 
them  would  produce  suiBcient  material  for  another  textbook. 

The  contents  of  this  book  are  confined  largely  to  the  sub- 
jects of  food  and  nutrition  and  the  application  of  heat  to 
foods.  Although  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences  should  be 
correlated  with  a  course  in  Domestic  Science,  the  text  has  not 
presupposed  much  knowledge  of  chemistry,  physics,  etc.,  on 
the  part  of  the  student. 

In  view  of  the  varying  conditions  that  prevail  in  domestic 
science  courses  it  has  not  been  thought  best  to  introduce  any 
discussion  of  methods  of  instruction,  but  the  arrangement  and 
presentation  of  lessons  has  been  left  to  the  discretion  of  the 
instructor. 

It  is  earnestly  hoped  that  the  text  will  prove  of  genuine 
assistance  to  classes  which  are  now  overburdened  with  note- 
taking  in  gathering  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  science 
of  food  and  nutrition. 

The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  a  debt  of  gratitude  to 
various  standard  authorities,  freely  quoted  in  the  text. 

v 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2011  with  funding  from 

Boston  Library  Consortium  IVIember  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/textbookofdomestOOcamp 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


T. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 
V. 

vi. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV, 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 


The  Relation  of  Food  to  the  Body     . 
Air  and  Combustion  ..... 
Classification  of  Foods  —  Carbohydrates 
Vegetables . 
Sugar  and  Fruits 


Food  Preservation 

Soups 

Protein  —  Eggs    . 

Protein  —  Composition  and  Preparation  of  Meat 

Protein — Poultry  and  FiSh  . 

Protein  —  Milk  and  Milk  Products 

Water  and  Beverages 

Leavening  —  Batters  and  Doughs 

Leavening  —  Breads  .... 

Fats  —  Frying  and  Pastry 

Cakes  and  Puddings  .         .         . 

Mineral  Foods  —  Salads  . 

Gelatine  and  Frozen  Desserts 

Invalid  Cookery         .         . 

Table  Service 

Diet  and  Nutrition  .... 


1 

7 

18 

30 

43 

50 

59 

68 

77 

100 

108 

115 

123 

132 

143 

156 

168 

177 

184 

191 

196 


TEXTBOOK  OF  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

CHAPTER   I 
THE  RELATION  OF  FOOD   TO  THE   BODY 

Foods  are  substances  which,  when  taken  into. the  body, 
provide  it  with  heat  and  other  forms  of  energy,  and  furnish 
it  with  material  for  growth  and  repair.  In  the  case  of  a 
grown  person,  foods  supply  the  fuel  necessary  for  various 
bodily  activities  — ■  for  walking,  for  mounting  stairs,  for  lift- 
ing weights;  and  they  keep  the  bodily  machinery  in  repair. 
In  the  case  of  a  growing  person,  they  also  supply  materials 
for  building  up  the  bodily  machinery. 

In  order  to  understand  how  food  can  serve  the  body  in 
the  ways  mentioned,  it  is  necessary  to  know  something  about 
the  composition  of  the  body  and  also  about  the  composition 
of  food.  Both,  however,  are  exceedingly  complex,  and  even 
those  who  are  devoting  their  lives  to  the  study  of  foods  in 
their  relation  to  the  body  have  still  much  to  discover  upon 
the  subject.  The  science  of  nutrition  is  a  growing  science, 
about  which  we  hope  in  time  to  know  much  more  than  we 
do  at  present. 

As  we  study  the  substances  found  in  nature  we  find  that 
they  are  composed  of  elements  which  combine  to  form 
many  compounds.  An  element  may  be  defined  as  a  sub- 
stance which  has  never  been  divided  into  anything  simpler 
than  itself.  A  compound  is  a  substance  which  is  composed 
of  two  or  more  elements.  In  all  nature  chemists  have  as 
B  1 


2  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

yet  discovered  only  about  eighty  elements  and  of  these  all 
compounds  are  made  up. 

In  the  body  there  are  known  to  be  fifteen  elements,  which 
are  combined  to  form  over  one  hundred  compounds. 


E 

LEMENTS  PRESENT  IN  THE   HUMAN 

BODY  (H. 

C.  SHERMAN) 

1. 

Oxygen                 6.  Phosphorus 

11. 

Magnesium 

2. 

Carbon                 7.  Potassium 

12. 

Iron 

3. 

Hydrogen            8.  Sulphur 

13. 

Iodine 

4. 

Nitrogen              9.  Sodium 

14. 

Fluorine 

5. 

Calcium             10.  Chlorine 

15. 

SiUcon 

The  body  is  constantly  undergoing  changes  by  which 
complex  compounds  are  broken  down,  and  new,  simpler 
compounds  are  formed  and  are  given  off  through  the  lungs 
and  skin,  from  the  kidneys,  and  otherwise.  The  result  of 
this  is  that  new  material,  containing  the  same  elements  as 
the  compounds  constantly  excreted,  must  be  supplied  to  the 
body  in  the  form  of  food.  A  well-known  chemist  has  re- 
ferred to  the  material  which  the  body  can  use  for  repair  and 
building  of  tissues  as  its  "  building  stones."  These  "  build- 
ing stones  "  must  not  only  contain  the  elements  of  which 
the  body  is  composed,  but  they  must  also  be  in  a  form  in 
which  the  body  can  utilize  them. 

In  order  to  prepare  the  "  building  stones  "  to  repair  the 
body  and  to  furnish  it  with  fuel,  many  of  them  must  first 
be  changed  by  heat  in  the  process  of  cooking,  and  they  are 
all  acted  upon  by  the  digestive  juices  after  being  taken  into 
the  body. 

All  changes  of  matter  are  of  two  kinds,  physical  and  chemi- 
cal. A  physical  change  is  one  that  does  not  cause  a  change 
in  the  composition  of  a  substance,  as  the  dissolving  of  sugar 


THE   RELATION  OF  FOOD   TO    THE  BODY  3 

in  water,  for  the  water  being  evaporated,  the  sugar  will  re- 
tain its  physical  properties. 

Note.  —  Student  make  a  list  of  physical  changes. 

A  chemical  change  is  one  that  causes  a  change  in  the  com- 
position of  a  substance,  as,  for  example,  the  burning  of  sugar, 
when  it  loses  all  its  physical  properties. 

Note.  —  Student  make  a  list  of  chemical  changes. 

The  science  of  chemistry  has  to  do  with  chemical  changes. 
The  science  of  physics  has  to  do  with  physical  changes. 

In  the  preparation  of  food,  and  in  its  digestion,  assimi- 
lation, and  excretion  from  the  body,  a  series  of  very  com- 
plex chemical  and  physical  changes  occurs. 

Among  the  most  important  and  most  abundant  of  the 
elements  found  in  the  body  are  oxygen,  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  sulphur. 

Oxygen  is  a  colorless,  odorless,  tasteless  gas  and  is  the 
great  supporter  of  life  and  combustion.  It  forms  one-fifth 
of  the  volume  of  air  and  eight-ninths  of  the  weight  of  water. 
'  It  is  a  very  active  element,  uniting  with  all  other  elements 
but  one.  It  is  more  abundantly  distributed  in  nature  than 
any  other  element  and  forms  about  66  per  cent  of  the 
human  body. 

Note.  —  Teacher  prepare  oxygen  and  perform  some  simple  ex- 
periments to  illustrate  its  properties,  using  any  standard  Chemistry 
as  a  guide. 

Carbon  is  an  odorless  and  tasteless  solid.  It  is  found  in 
nature  in  a  nearly  pure  state  in  several  different  forms.  The 
diamond,  hard  coal,  and  graphite,  while  having  vastly  dif- 
ferent physical  properties,  are  almost  pure  carbon.  All 
living  organisms,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  contain  carbon, 
and  over  one  hundred  thousand  carbon  compounds  have 


4  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

been  artificially  prepared  in  the  laboratory.  Under  certain 
circumstances  carbon  unites  chemically  with  oxygen,  form- 
ing carbon  monoxide  (CO)  or  carbon  dioxide  (CO2).  Heat 
is  given  off  during  this  change.  Carbon  and  its  compounds 
form  the  larger  part  of  fuels  and  of  fuel-  or  heat-giving  foods. 
Hydrogen  is  a  colorless,  odorless,  tasteless  gas  and  is  the 
lightest  substance  known.  It  burns  easily,  or  unites  chemi- 
cally with  oxygen,  forming  water  (H2O),  heat  being  given 
off  during  this  change.  Hydrogen  burns  in  the  body,  but 
the  heat  is  not  intense.  Hydrogen,  as  well  as  carbon,  is 
found  in  fuels  and  in  fuel  foods ;  in  general,  the  higher  the 
percentage  of  hydrogen  in  a  food,  the  greater  the  amount 
of  heat  it  yields  when  it  burns. 

Note.  —  Teacher  prepare  hydrogen  and  perform  some  simple 
experiments  to  illustrate  its  properties,  using  a  standard  Chemistry 
as  a  guide. 

Nitrogen  is  a  colorless,  odorless,  tasteless  gas.  It  forms 
about  four-fifths  of  the  atmosphere.  It  is  an  inert  gas  and 
forms  compounds  which  easily  decompose,  a  process  which, 
as  we  shall  see  later,  is  due  to  the  action  of  tiny  living  organ- 
isms called  bacteria.  Nitrogen  is  present  in  the  protoplasm, 
the  jellylike  content  of  cells  of  plants  and  animals,  and 
is  an  essential  constituent  of  all  living  organisms.  The 
human  body  contains  about  2.4  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  which 
is  obtained  from  certain  foods  that  furnish  nitrogen  in  a  form 
that  the  body  can  digest  and  assimilate.  Prominent  among 
these  foods  are  meat,  eggs,  fish,  milk,  etc. ;  without  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  such  foods  the  body  would  undergo  nitrogen 
starvation. 

Sulphur  is  a  yellow,  combustible  solid.  It  is  always 
present  in  cell  protoplasm  in  combination  with  the  nitrogen 
compounds,  and  is  essential  for  the  body.     Plants  absorb 


THE  RELATION  OF  FOOD   TO   THE  BODY  5 

sulphur  compounds,  or  suli)liat(',s  from  the;  soil,  and  animals 
obtain  the  sulphatc^s  which  they  require  from  v(^getable 
foods  and  from  meat,  milk,  eggs,  etc.  When  foods  that 
contain  sulphur  decompose  under  the  action  of  bacteria, 
the  sulphur  unites  with  some  of  the  hydrogen  present,  form- 
ing hydrogen  sulphide  (H2S),  the  disagreeable  odor  of  which 
is  known  in  spoiled  eggs. 

Phosphorus  is  a  highly  combustible  solid  and  in  the  pure 
state  it  is  exceedingly  poisonous.  In  combination  in  the  form 
of  phosphates,  it  is  essential  to  every  living  cell  in  the  body 
and  must  be  supplied  to  the  body  by  such  foods  as  contain 
the  phosphates  in  a  form  in  which  the  body  can  assimilate 
them.  Among  these  foods  are  meat,  milk,  egg  yolk,  wheat, 
grains,  and  the  legumes. 

Organic  and  Inorganic  Matter.  —  All  matter  may  be 
classified  as  organic  or  inorganic.  All  organic  substances 
contain  carbon.  All  substances  that  are  formed  during  the 
processes  of  life  are  organic  and,  as  before  stated,  great  num- 
bers of  carbon  compounds  have  been  artificially  prepared. 

Note.  —  Student  make  a  list  of  eight  organic  substances. 
Note.  —  Student  make  a  list  of  eight  inorganic  substances. 

Chemical  Symbols.  —  In  writing  the  names  of  elements  it 
is  often  inconvenient  to  write  the  full  name,  hence  the  ele- 
ments are  designated  by  their  initial  letters,  or  by  those  of 
their  Latin  names.  These  abbreviations  are  called  symbols 
and  represent  one  atom  of  the  element  and  its  combining 
weight. 

SYMBOLS  OF  THE  ELEMENTS  FOUND   IN  THE  HUMAN   BODY 

1.  Oxygen      .  .  .  .  O  5.  Calcium    .....  Ca 

2.  Carbon      .  .  .  .  C  6.  Phosphorus    .     .     .     .  P 

3.  Hydrogen.  .  .  .  H  7.  Potassium      .     .     .     .  K 

4.  Nitrogen   .  .  .  .  N  8.  Sulphur S 


6  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

9.  Sodium   .     «     .     .  Na  13.  Iodine I 

10.  Chlorine       ...  CI  14.  Fluorine  .....  F 

11.  Magnesium      .     .  Mg  15.  Silicon      .     .     .     .     .  Si 

12.  Iron Fe 

Chemical  Formulas  and  Equations.  —  The  combination  of 
symbols  which  represents  the  elements  found  in  a  molecule 
of  a  compound  is  called  a  chemical  formula.  H2O  is  the 
formula  for  a  molecule  of  water,  water  being  composed  of 
two  parts  by  volume  of  hydrogen  and  one  part  of  oxygen. 
CO2  is  the  formula  for  carbon  dioxide,  which  is  composed  of 
one  part  by  volume  of  carbon  and  two  parts  of  oxygen. 

When  a  substance  undergoes  a  chemical  change,  or  when 
two  or  more  elements  or  compounds  unite  chemically,  these 
changes  may  be  represented  by  means  of  symbols  or  formulas 
in  the  form  of  an  equation : 

H2  +  0  =  H2O 
C  +O2  =  CO2 
C    +  0    =  CO  (Carbon  Monoxide) 


CHAPTER   II 
AIR  AND   COMBUSTION 

Air.  —  Air  is  necessary  for  the  support  of  life  and  combus- 
tion. It  is  a  mixture,  not  a  compound;  that  is,  the  sub- 
stances of  which  it  is  composed  are  not  chemically  combined. 

It  has  definite  weight.  At  the  sea  level  the  atmosphere 
exerts  a  pressure  of  fifteen  pounds  on  every  square  inch  of 
surface,  but  as  the  pressure  is  equal  in  every  direction^  we 
are  not  crushed  by  this  weight. 

Air  is  composed  of  about  one-fifth  oxygen  and  four-fifths 
nitrogen.  There  are  present  also  varying  amounts  of  car- 
bon dioxide  (CO2),  watery  vapor,  ammonia,  dust,  bacteria, 
etc.  The  nitrogen  is  not  in  a  form  in  which  it  can  be  util- 
ized by  either  plants  or  animals.  Upon  the  roots  of  certain 
plants,  as  clover,  peas,  beans,  etc.,  are  found  nodules  contain- 
ing bacteria  which  have  the  power  of  taking  nitrogen  from 
the  air  and  changing  it  to  such  compounds  of  nitrogen  as 
can  be  utilized  by  the  plant.  From  these  compounds  the 
plant  builds  complex  nitrogenous  compounds  which  it  stores 
in  its  cells  as  protein. 

The  oxygen  in  the  air  supports  combustion. 

Experiment  1.  —  Light  a  sphnt  and  insert  it  in  a  dry,  empty 
test  tube.     Is  the  flame  extinguished  ?    Why  ? 

Experiment  2.  —  Put  a  lamp  chimney  over  a  lighted  candle. 
Admit  air  from  the  bottom.     Does  the  candle  burn  freely? 

Hold  a  strip  of  tissue  paper  near  the  bottom  of  the  chimney, 
and  also  above  the  chimney.  Explain  the  cause  of  movement  of 
the  paper.  Cover  the  chimney  on  top  and  also  exclude  air  from  the 
bottom.     Does  the  candle  continue  to  burn  ?     Give  reason. 

7 


8  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

Experiment  3. —  (To  be  performed  by  the  instructor.)  Float 
a  cork  with  a  small  piece  of  phosphorus  on  it  in  a  pan  of  water. 
Ignite  the  phosphorus  and  cover  it  quickly  with  a  bell  jar.  (A 
fruit  jar  may  be  used.) 

With  what  does  the  phosphorus  unite  in  burning  to  form  the 
dense  white  fume  ? 

What  becomes  of  this  fume  as  it  disappears  ? 

What  part  of  the  jar  is  filled  with  water? 

What  component  of  the  air  has  been  burned  out  ?  What  com- 
ponent of  the  air  remains  in  the  jar,  preventing  the  water  from  filling 
the  entire  jar? 

What  proportion  of  the  air  is  oxj^'gen  ?   nitrogen  ? 

Experiment  4.  —  To  examine  air  for  dust,  bacteria,  etc. 

Put  a  drop  of  glycerine  on  a  clean  glass  microscope  shde.  Ex- 
pose to  the  dust  of  the  room  until  the  next  lesson.  Cover  the 
glycerine  with  a  cover  glass  and  examine  under  a  microscope,  first 
with  a  low  power  and  then  with  a  high  power.  Make  a  drawing 
of  what  you  see. 

Oxidation  and  Combustion.  —  Oxidation,  or  combustion,  is 
the  union  of  oxygen  with  any  other  substance.  The  process 
may  be  slow  or  rapid,  but  in  either  case  heat  is  given  off, 
even  though  not  rapidly  enough  to  be  perceptible.  Example  : 
the  rusting  of  iron  is  really  the  burning  of  iron,  but  the 
process  is  so  slow  that  we  do  not  detect  the  heat  given  off. 

Fuels  are  composed  largely  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  which, 
in  burning,  unite  w4th  oxygen  of  the  air  giving  off  heat. 

Products  of  Combustion. 

Experiment  5.  —  Hold  a  saucer  in  a  candle  flame.  Note  the 
black  deposit  that  forms  on  it.  What  element  is  present  in  the 
candle?  What  is  smoke?  Do  we  get  the  maximum  heat  from 
fuel  when  smoke  is  given  off  during  combustion  ? 

Identification  Test  for  Carbon  Dioxide.  —  Put  some  filtered  lime- 
water  in  a  glass  beaker  or  tumbler.     Breathe  through  a  glass  tube 


AIR   AND   COMBUSTION  9 

into  the  limewater,  which  will  l)ecome  cloudy  from  the  carbon 
dioxide  present  in  the  breath  exhaled  from  the  lungs.  This  test  is 
used  to  identify  carbon  dioxide,  which  always  causes  limewater  to 
become  cloudy.    An  excess  of  CO2  causes  the  cloudiness  to  disappear. 

Experiment  6.  —  Hold  a  bell  jar  over  a  burning  candle  for  a 
short  time,  collecting  any  gases  which  may  be  given  off  during  com- 
bustion. Invert  the  bell  jar,  pour  into  it  some  filtered  limewater, 
cover  the  jar,  and  shake  well.  Does  the  limewater  become  cloudy  ? 
What  gas  was  given  off  during  the  burning  of  the  candle  ? 

Experiment  7.  —  Cover  a  burning  candle  with  a  dry  bell  jar. 
Note  the  formation  of  water  on  the  sides  of  the  jai*.  Is  the  water  a 
product  of  combustion  ?     Write  the  equation  for  the  forming  of  H2O. 

Summary  of  products  of  combustion  : 

C  +  0  =  CO,  carbon  monoxide,  a  poisonous  gas  given  off  in  com- 
bustion when  the  supply  of  oxygen  is  deficient. 
The  blue  flame  on  the  surface  of  a  coal  fire  is 
burning  CO.  All  stoves  should  have  perfect 
chimney  connections  to  carry  off  this  poisonous 
gas. 

C  +  O2  =  CO2,  carbon  dioxide. 

H2  +  0  =  H2O,  water. 

Unconsumed  carbon  =  smoke. .  ' 

Mineral  matter  =  ash. 

Flame.  —  When  two  substances  unite  chemically,  and 
both  are  gases  or  vapors  at  the  temperature  of  combustion, 
the  act  of  union  is  accompanied  by  a  flame.  When  one  of 
the  substances  remains  solid  at  the  temperature  of  combus- 
tion, heat  and  light  are  given  off,  but  there  is  no  flame. 
Many  substances  which  are  solids  or  liquids  at  ordinary 
temperatures  vaporize  slowly  when  at  the  temperature  of 
burning  and  hence  burn  with  a  flame.  The  light  given  by 
the  flame  is  caused  by  the  glowing,  or  incandescence,  of  the 
solid  carbon  particles.     At  a  higher  temperature  the  carbon 


10  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

is  quickly  and  completely  burned  and  gives  no  light,  but 
burns  with  a  blue  flame. 

When  gas  is  used  as  a  fuel  it  is  mixed  with  air  before 
burning,  in  order  that  it  may  be  diluted,  when  there  will  be 
a  more  perfect  combustion.  A  gas  used  as  fuel  should  burn 
with  a  blue  flame  ;  a  yellow  or  a  smoky  flame  indicates  that 
the  carbon  is  not  being  completely  consumed  and  there  is  an 
attendant  loss  of  heat. 

Note.  —  Students  examine  carefully  a  Bunsen  or  other  gas  burner, 
increasing  and  decreasing  the  supply  of  oxygen  by  opening  and 
closing  the  mixer.  Note  the  varying  color  of  the  flame  and  the 
seeming  increase  or  loss  of  heat. 

Kindling  Point.  —  Every  combustible  solid  must  be  raised 
to  a  certain  temperature,  or  kindling  point,  before  it  will 
unite  rapidly  enough  with  oxygen  to  produce  light.  This 
temperature  varies  with  different  substances,  but  is  always 
the  same  for  the  same  substance.  The  kindling  point  of 
phosphorus  is  very  low.  Ordinary  parlor  matches  are  tipped 
with  phosphorus,  potassium  chlorate,  and  glue.  The  heat 
produced  by  the  friction  of  striking  the  match  is  sufficient 
to  raise  the  phosphorus  to  its  burning  point.  The  heat 
produced  by  the  burning  of  the  phosphorus  raises  the  wood 
of  the  match  to  its  kindling  point,  and  the  match  ignites. 

Note.  —  Student  explain  the  steps  in  fire  building  by  which 
hard  coal  may  be  raised  to  its  kindling  point. 

Flash  Point.  —  The  temperature  to  which  a  fat  or  oil  must 
be  raised  before  an  inflammable  vapor  is  given  off  is  called 
the  flash  point.  This  is  a  valuable  indication  of  the  safety 
of  an  oil. 

Fuels.  —  A  fuel  is  a  combusti])le  substance  usually  com- 
posed of  carbon  and  hydrogen. 


AIR  AND   COMBUSTION  11 

Note.  —  Student  prepare  a  list  of  fuels  — 

Solids  Liquids  Gases 


Note.  —  Students  inspect  specimens  of  hard  and  soft  woods ; 
charcoal ;  peat ;  bituminous,  anthracite,  and  cannel  coal ;  various 
fuel  oils  ;    alcohols. 

Students  write  paper  on  the  "Story  of  Coal." 

Students  procure  the  current  market  price  of  the  various  fuels 
listed  above.  From  the  cost  of  a  basket  of  coal  or  "bundle  of 
wood,"  estimate  the  price  paid  for  a  ton  of  coal  and  a  cord  of  wood 
when  purchased  in  small  quantities. 

Heat.  —  Heat  is  molecular  motion. 
Sources  of  heat : 

1.  Mechanical  energy. 

Produced  by  friction  or  by  collision. 

2.  Chemical  energy. 

Produced  by  combustion  or  by  chemical  union  of  dif- 
ferent compounds  or  elements. 

3.  Electrical  energy. 

As  produced  by  an  electric  toaster,  etc.,  or  by  the 
sun's  rays. 
Heat  is  transferred  from  one  body  to  another  or  to  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  same  body  by  conduction,  convection, 
and  radiation. 

-    Conduction  : 

Experiment  8.  —  Place  rods  of  wood,  metal,  and  glass  on  an 
asbestos  mat  over  a  gas  burner  with  the  ends  of  the  rods  extending 
beyond  the  mat.  The  metal  rod  will  soon  become  hot,  while  the 
other  two  will  not  be  appreciably  heated.     Metals  are  good  con- 


12  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

ductors  of  heat  and  cold,  glass  and  wood  are  poor  conductors.     Air 
is  a  very  poor  conductor. 

The  conduction  of  heat  consists  of  the  transfer  of  motion  from 
molecule  to  molecule. 

Note.  —  Students  make  a  list  of  good  conductors ;  of  poor  con- 
ductors. 

Why  are  wooden  handles  placed  upon  teakettles,  flat-irons, 
etc.  ?  Why  is  the  handle  of  a  kettle  sometimes  made  in  the  form 
of  a  spiral  ?  Why  is  the  outer  portion  of  an  ice  cream  freezer  made 
of  wood  ?  Why  is  the  inner  can  made  of  metal  ?  What  is  the  prin- 
ciple upon  which  a  tireless  cooker  is  constructed  ?  a  thermos 
bottle  ?     How  should  the  oven  of  a  stove  be  constructed  ? 

Convection: 

Experiment  9.  —  Partly  fill  a  glass  beaker  with  water,  add  one 
haK  teaspoon  of  sawdust,  and  heat  slowly.  A  movement  will  be 
seen  in  the  sawdust,  indicating  that  the  heat  sets  up  currents  in 
the  water  which  have  an  upward  direction  immediately  over  the 
flame.  The  water  nearest  the  flame  becomes  heated  and  expands; 
this  makes  it  lighter  and  it  rises,  while  the  cold  water  of  the  top 
takes  its  place,  thus  causing  the  currents  noted.  This  method  of 
heat  transference,  which  takes  place  in  liquids  and  in  gases,  is 
called  convection.  There  are  convection  currents  in  the  atmosphere, 
caused  by  the  unequal  heating  of  the  earth  by  the  sun.  The  air 
over  a  heated  portion  of  the  earth  rises,  and  the  cool  air  rushes  in 
to  take  its  place. 

Note.  —  What  is  the  principle  of  heating  a  building  with  a  hot- 
water  system  ?     How  should  a  room  be  ventilated  ? 

Radiation : 

Experiment  10.  —  When  you  hold  your  hand  in  front  of  a  fire, 
heat  travels  directly  from  the  fire  to  the  hand.  This  method  of 
heat  transference,  in  which  heat  travels  in  straight  lines,  or  radiates 
through  the  atmosphere,  is  known  as  radiation. 

Note.  —  How  is  heat  transferred  in  making  toast?  in  broiling? 
Is  there  loss  of  heat  from  radiation  in  the  ordinary  cook  stove  ? 


AIR  AND   COMBUSTION  13 

Note.  —  StiKhnits  oxcitnirK^  tlio  stovers  and  i-aujjji^s  in  us(!  in  lli(3 
domostici  s('-icn(H3  la))oratory.  Make  drawings  ol'  tiKini,  showinj^  the 
principle  of  heat  conveyance  and  the  system  of  dampers  used  for 
admitting  oxygen  to  the  fire  and  for  controlling  the  heat  currents. 
Bring  a  detailed  drawing  of  the  stove  used  at  home.  Test  various 
parts  of  the  school  oven  with  paper  or  flour,  showing  in  what  part 
of  the  oven  the  heat  is  the  most  intense.  Examine  also  and  make 
drawings  of 

1.  Gas  burners  and  their  mixers. 

2.  Fireless  cookers. 

3.  Electric  stoves. 

4.  Kerosene  stoves. 

5.  Gasoline  stoves. 

Discuss  the  evolution  of  the  cook  stove.  Catalogues  showing 
modern  stoves,  including  gas  stoves,  electric  stoves,  etc.,  should  be 
shown  to  students  or  be  collected  by  them. 

The  construction  of  cook  stoves  is  at  present  in  a  transition 
stage  and  drawings  are  not  given  in  this  text,  as  it  is  hoped 
soon  that  the  construction  of  stoves  will  be  materially 
changed.  The  loss  of  heat  and  the  attendant  waste  of  fuel 
in  heating  an  ordinary  oven  is  very  great.  It  is  said  that 
only  about  seven  per  cent  of  the  heat  is  utilized.  Modern 
stoves  are  now  being  constructed  with  non-conducting  sub- 
stances around  the  air  chambers  which  surround  the  ovens 
so  that  the  waste  of  heat  is  much  reduced.  An  oven  ther- 
mometer should  be  placed  on  every  oven  to  substitute  a  scien- 
tific means  of  regulation  for  the  old-fashioned  dependence  on 
"  luck  "  when  baking.  With  gas  and  electric  stoves  a  ther- 
mostat should  shut  off  heat  when  a  certain  temperature  has 
been  attained,  the  baking  being  then  completed  by  the  re- 
tained heat  of  the  oven. 

Cooking  is  the  art  of  preparing  food  for  the  nourishment 
of  the  human  body  by  the  aid  of  heat.  We  cook  food  to 
make  it  more  palatable,  more  digestible,  and  to  destroy  any 
harmful  bacteria  which  it  may  contain. 


14  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

The  processes  of  cooking  may  be  classed  as : 

1.  Boiling. 

a.  Cooking  directly  in  water. 
h.  Steaming. 

(1)  Moist,  cooking  in  a  steamer. 

(2)  Dry,  cooking  in  double  boiler. 

2.  Roasting. 

a.  Roasting  in  front  of  open  fire. 

b.  Roasting  in  hot  oven. 

3.  Broiling. 

a.   Broiling  over  red-hot  coals  or  gas  flame. 
h.  Pan-broiling  in  very  hot  pan  (without  fat). 

4.  Frying. 

a.   Deep  frying. 

h.  Sauteing,  or  frying  in  small  amount  of  fat. 

Boiling : 

Experiment  11.  —  Put  cold  water  in  glass  beaker  or  stewpan. 
Heat.  With  thermometer  note  temperature  at  which  small  bub- 
bles form  on  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  beaker  and  rise  to  the 
surface.  What  are  these  bubbles  ?  Where  do  they  break  ?  Note 
temperature  at  which  larger  bubbles  rise ;  and  also  note  tempera- 
ture when  the  surface  of  the  water  is  completely  agitated.  What 
are  these  large  bubbles  ?  Where  do  they  break  ?  What  is  the  tem- 
perature of  simmering  water  ?  of  boiling  water  ?  How  is  the  heat 
of  the  fire  conveyed  to  the  water  ?  How  is  the  heat  conveyed 
through  the  water?  Note  the  deposit  left  on  the  pan  after  the 
water  has  boiled  away;  what  is  this  deposit?  Give  two  reasons 
why  boiled  water  tastes  flat.  Why  should  water  be  freshly  boiled 
for  tea  and  coffee?  How  can  you  improve  the  taste  of  water 
which  has  been  boiled  ? 

Experiment  12.  —  Let  water  boil  gently.  Note  temperature. 
Let  it  boil  rapidly.  Note  temperature.  Does  water  get  hotter 
than  its  boiling  point  in  an  ordinary  kettle  ?     What  becomes  of  the 


AIR   AND   COMBUSTION  15 

excess  heat?  What  important  i)oiiit  in  the  economy  of  fuel  in 
cooking  does  this  emphasize  ? 

Experiment  13.  —  A.  Put  equal  amounts  of  water  in  two 
beakers  of  the  same  size.  Let  the  water  in  one  beaker  boil  gently 
for  about  five  minutes ;  in  the  other  let  it  boil  rapidly.  Compare 
the  rate  of  evaporation  of  the  water  in  the  two  beakers. 

B.  Put  equal  amounts  of  water  in  two  vessels  of  equal  capacity, 
having  one  vessel  shallow  and  broad  and  the  other  deep  and  narrow. 
Boil  the  water  in  them  for  an  equal  length  of  time  and  compare 
the  rate  of  evaporation  in  the  two  vessels.  Does  the  shape  of  the 
pan  used  and  the  rapidity  of  boiling  have  any  bearing  on  practical 
cookery  ? 

Experiment  14.  —  Mix  ^  cup  of  sugar  and  ^  cup  of  water ; 
boil  and  note  temperature,  with  confectioner's  or  laboratory  ther- 
mometer ;  compare  boiling  point  of  the  mixture  with  that  of  boil- 
ing water.     Continue  the  boiling,  noting  any  change  of  temperature. 

Stages  in  Sugar  Boiling : 

Soft  Ball.  —  At  237°  F.  drop  some  of  the  sugar  mixture 
into  ice  water.  Form  it  into  a  ball  between  the  thumb  and 
finger,  keeping  under  the  water. 

Hard  Ball.  —  At  256°  F.  drop  some  of  the  mixture  into 
ice  water.  Form  it  into  a  ball  and  compare  with  the  soft 
ball. 

Soft  Crack.  —  At  290°  F.  drop  some  of  mixture  into  ice 
water.  This  cracks,  but  if  put  between  the  teeth,  will 
stick. 

Hard  Crack.  —  At  310°  F.  drop  some  of  mixture  into  ice 
water.     This  cracks,  but  does  not  stick  to  the  teeth. 
-  Continue  boiling  the  syrup  until  it  is  a  light  brown  color, 
or  caramel.     Pour  into  a  tin  pan  and  let  cool. 

Under  what  condition  does  the  boiling  point  of  a  liquid 
vary?  Explain  the  value  of  a  thermometer  in  candy 
making. 


16  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

Boiling  Point.  —  The  boiling  point  of  water  at  sea  level  is 
212°  Fahrenheit  or  100°  centigrade.  The  boiling  points  of 
liquids  vary  both  with  their  composition  and  with  the  atmos- 
pheric pressure.  It  is  necessary  for  water  to  overcome  the 
atmospheric  pressure  before  it  can  be  changed  to  steam. 
If  the  altitude  increases,  as  in  ascending  a  mountain,  the 
atmospheric  pressure  is  lessened,  hence  less  heat  is  required 
to  overcome  it,  and  water  boils  at  a  lower  temperature. 
The  boiling  point  of  water  is  decreased  1°  F.  for  each  increase 
of  479  feet  in  altitude.  What  is  the  temperature  of  boiling 
water  on  Mt.  Blanc? 

TABLE   OF  ABBREVIATIONS 

Ts.  —  Teaspoonful  Qt.  —  Quart 

Tb.  —  Tablespoonful  Lb.  —  Pound 

C.  —  Cupful  Oz.  —  Ounce 

Ssp.  —  Saltspoonful  M.  —  Minute 

Pt.  —  Pint  H.  —  Hour 

Measurements.  —  All  measurements  in  this  book  are 
level.  Accurate  measuring  is  necessary  to  insure  uniform 
success  in  cookery  and  to  eliminate  the  element  of  "  luck." 

The  standard  measuring  cup  is  one  holding  one-half 
pint. 

The  standard  tablespoon  is  one  holding  one-sixteenth  of  a 
cupful. 

One-half  spoonful  is  measured  by  dividing  the  spoonful  in 
two  lengthwise. 

Flour  is  measured  after  being  sifted  once,  and  is  placed 
in  the  cup  with  a  spoon  that  it  may  not  be  packed.  The 
flour  should  be  rounded  slightly  in  the  cup  and  then  be 
leveled  off  with  a  knife. 


AIR   AND   COMBUSTION  17 

EQUIVALENT  WEIGHTS  AND   MEASURES 
To  be  verified  by  class  or  by  individual  experiment. 


4  ssp.  =  1  ts. 

8  or  9  eggs  =  1  lb. 

2ts.=  1  tb. 

4  c.  flour  =  1  lb. 

16tb.=  1  c. 

2  c.  butter  =  1  lb. 

2  gills  =  1  c. 

2  c.  gran,  sugar  =  1  lb. 

2c.=  1  pt. 

2|  c.  pow.  sugar  =  1  lb. 

2  pt.  =  1  qt. 

2f  c.  corn  meal=  1  lb. 

4  qt.  =  1  gal. 

2  c.  raisins  =  1  lb. 

8  qt.  =  1  peck 

2  c.  chopped  meat  =  1  lb. 

4  pk.  =  1  bu. 

1  tb.  butter  =  \  oz, 

1  tb.  sugar  =  |  oz, 

CHAPTER   III 
CLASSIFICATION   OF   FOODS  —  CARBOHYDRATES 

Classification  of  Foods  and  their  General  Uses  in  the  Body : 

A.   Organic  Foods. 

1.  Carbohydrates. 

Composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 
Examples.  —  1.  Starch  in  cereals,  etc. 

2.  Sugar. 

3.  Cellulose. 

Uses  in  body.  —  1.  To  supply  heat  and  energy. 
2.  To  form  fat. 

2.  Fats. 

Composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 
Examples.  —  1.  Fat  of  meats. 

2.  Cream. 

3.  Butter. 

4.  Olive  oil,  etc. 

Uses  in  body.  —  I.  To  supply  heat  and  energy. 
2.  To  form  fat. 

3.  Protein. 

Composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen, 
sulphur,  and  sometimes  phosphorus. 
Examples.  —  1.  Albumen  of  egg. 

2.  Casein  of  milk. 

3.  Fibrin  of  meat. 

4.  Gluten  of  wheat. 

5.  Legumen  of  peas  and  beans,  etc. 
Uses  in  body.  —  1.  To  form  tissue. 

2.  To  supply  heat  and  energy. 

3.  To  form  fat. 
18 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FOODS  19 

B.    Inorganic  Foods. 

1.  Water. 

Composed  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  H2O. 

Uses  in  body.  —  1.  Forms    two-thirds    of    body 
weight. 
2.  Carrier  of  nutritive  material 
and  of  waste  products. 

2.  Mineral  Matter. 

Examples.  —  1.  Sodium  chloride. 

2.  Phosphate  of  lime. 

3.  Compounds  of  potassium,  iron, 

magnesium,  etc. 


C. 


Uses  in  body.  —  1.  Aid  in  forming  bone,  teeth, 

etc. 

2.  Assist  in  digestion. 

3.  Necessary  for  tissues,  blood, 

etc. 

Food  Adjuncivs  and  Accessories. 

1. 

Condiments  and  Spices. 

Examples.  —  1.  Mustard. 

2.  Pepper. 

3.  Spices. 

Uses  in  body.  —  1.  Stimulate  the  appetite. 

2.  Increase    flow    of    digestive 

fluids. 

2. 

Vegetable  Acids. 

Examples.  —  1 .  Citric  acid  in  lemons  and  oranges. 

2.  Malic  acid  in  apples. 

3.  Oxalic  acid  in  rhubarb. 

4.  Tartaric  acid  in  grapes. 

3. 

Caffeine  in  tea  and  coffee. 

Theobromine  in  cocoa. 

20  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

CARBOHYDRATES 

A  carbohydrate  is  a  compound  composed  of  carbon,  hydro- 
gen, and  oxygen.  Hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  always  present 
in  the  same  proportion  as  they  are  in  water  —  2:1  (H2O) . 

Chemical  Formula : 

Cellulose       (CeHioOs)^. 
Starch  (CeHioOs)^. 

Glucose         (CeHisOe). 
Cane  Sugar  (C12H22O11). 

The  carbohydrates  include  starches,  sugars,  and  plant 
fibers,  or  cellulose. 

Carbohydrates  are  found 

1.  In  plants  as  starches,  sugars,  and  cellulose. 

2.  In  milk  as  lactose  or  milk  sugar. 

3.  In  the  liver  of  animals  as  glycogen  or  animal  starch. 

4.  In  body  tissues  as  inosite  or  muscle  sugar. 

Starch  is  formed  by  the  chlorophyll  of  the  plant  cell, 
under  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays,  from  the  carbon  dioxide 
of  the  air  and  the  water  drawn  from  the  soil.  The  process 
is  a  complex  one,  but  the  net  result  may  be  shown  by  the 
following  equation : 

carbon  dioxide  +  water    =    starch    +  oxygen 
6  CO2  +5  H2O  =  C6H10O5  +    6  O2 

or  Glucose 

6  CO2  +  6  H2O  =  C6H12O6  +  6  O2 

Starch.  —  Starch  is  the  most  abundantly  distributed  in 
nature  of  any  of  the  carbohydrates,  for  it  is  the  chief  form 
in  which  plants  store  their  carbohydrate.  It  is  found  in 
fruits,  seeds,  roots,  tubers,  bulbs,  stems,  and  leaves  of  various 
plants.  In  the  United  States  the  starch  of  commerce  is 
obtained  chiefly  from  corn. 


CA  HBO  1 1  YD  HA  TEH,  21 

Starch  exists  in  the  form  of  minute  granules  which  are 
formed  in  the  plant  during  its  growth.  The  granules  are 
composed  of  alternate  layers  of  starch  and  cellulose,  those 
of  different  plants  having  characteristic  shapes  which  can 
be  recognized  by  examination  with  a  microscope.  Owing 
to  its  wide  distribution,  and  to  the  fact  that  it  may  be  easily 
stored  because  it  does  not  decompose  readily,  starch  is  the 
cheapest  form  of  food  and  is  often  used  to  excess  in  the  diet. 

Structure  of  the  Starch  Granule.  —  Examine  under  the 
microscope  and  make  drawings  of  starch  granules  from  corn, 
potato,  wheat. 

Identification  Test  for  Starch.  —  Mix  a  little  starch  and  cold 
water,  boil,  and  cool.  Add  a  drop  of  iodine.  The  blue  color  which 
results  is  characteristic  of  starch.  With  raw  starch,  iodine  gives  a 
purple  color. 

Experiment  15.  —  Test  various  foods  with  iodine  to  ascertain 
whether  they  contain  starch.     Tabulate  results. 

Solubility  of  Starch. 

Experiment  16.  —  Mix  \  tsp.  starch  in  |  c.  cold  water.  Filter 
through  filter  paper.  Test  the  filtrate  and  also  the  residue  on  the 
paper  with  iodine  for  starch.  Did  the  starch  pass  through  the 
filter  ?     Is  starch  soluble  in  cold  water  ? 

Experiment  17.  —  Mix  \  ts.  starch  in  \  c.  cold  water.  Heat 
to  boiling.  Filter.  Test  as  above.  Did  any  of  the  starch  pass 
through  the  filter?  Is  starch  at  least  partly  soluble  in  boiling' 
water  ?  Examine  some  of  the  cooked  starch  under  the  microscope. 
Has  any  change  taken  place  in  the  form  of  the  granule? 

Experiment  18.  —  Pour  boiling  water  directly  upon  dry  starch. 
Examine  lumps.     What  caused  them  to  form? 

Experiment  19.  —  Mix  starch  with  cold  water  and  stir  into 
boiling  water.  Did  lumps  form  in  the  mixture  ?  Give  one  method 
by  which  lumps  may  be  avoided  when  starch  is  used  to  thicken  a 
mixture, 


22  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

Dextrin.  —  Before  starch  can  be  absorbed  into  the  blood, 
to  be  utilized  in  giving  heat  and  energy  to  the  body  or  to  be 
stored  as  fat,  it  must  first  be  changed  to  a  soluble  carbohy- 
drate or  form  of  sugar.  Before  the  final  change  to  sugar 
takes  place  an  intermediate  product  is  formed  called  dextrin. 
This  has  the  same  chemical  formula  as  starch  (CeHioOs)^, 
but  possesses  different  properties. 

Dextrin  may  be  formed  (1)  by  the  application  of  heat  to 
dry  starch,  as  in  browning  of  flour ;  (2)  it  is  the  first  change 
that  occurs  when  the  enzymes,  ptyalin  of  saliva,  amylopsin 
of  the  pancreatic  juice,  or  diastase  of  sprouting  grains,  con- 
vert starch  into  sugar. 

Identification  Test  for  Dextrin.  —  Brown  some  flour  without  burn- 
ing it,  add  water ;  shake  well.  Add  a  drop  of  iodine.  The  reddish 
brown  color  which  results  is  a  characteristic  test  for  dextrin. 

Experiment  20.  —  Mix  some  browned  flour  or  well-browned 
toast  with  water.  Let  stand  awhile.  Filter.  Test  filtrate  for 
dextrin. 

Is  dextrin  soluble  in  cold  water?  Does  it  differ  from  starch  in 
this  respect  ? 

Experiment  21.  —  Test  the  brown  crust  of  l^read,  and  also  the 
white  crumb  of  the  center  of  the  loaf,  for  dextrin. 

Which  is  the  more  soluble,  hence  the  more  digestible,  the  crust 
or  the  crumb  of  bread  ? 

Cellulose.  —  Cellulose  forms  the  basis  of  the  cell  structure 
of  plants.  Cotton  and  linen  fiber  are  nearly  pure  cellulose. 
Paper  consists  largely  of  cellulose.  Cellulose,  as  a  rule,  is 
hard  and  dense  and  resists  the  action  of  the  digestive  juices, 
so  that  when  taken  as  a  food,  it  is  excreted  without  having 
been  changed  by  the  digestive  juices.  The  cellulose  of 
young  and  tender  plants  may  be  in  part  digested.  Cooking 
tends  to  soften  cellulose,  thus  making  vc^getables,  cereals, 


CARBOHYDRATES  23 

and  fruits  more  digestible ;    and   it  also   disintegrates   the 
starch  granule,  making  the  starch  available  as  food. 

While  having  but  little  nutritive  value,  cellulose  is  very 
beneficial  in  the  diet,  as  it  is  a  mechanical  stimulus  to  the 
action  of  the  large  intestine,  thus  tending  to  prevent  consti- 
pation. It  also  absorbs  and  dilutes  the  waste  products 
formed  during  digestion.  Uncooked  cellulose  should  not  be 
given  in  large  amounts  to  young  children. 

METHODS  OF   USING   STARCH    AS  A  THICKENING   AGENT 

Experiment  22. — Method  1.  a.  Mix  1  tb.  flour  with  1  tb.  water. 

b.  Mix  1  tb.  flour  with  2  tb.  water. 

c.  Mix  1  tb.  flour  with  3  tb.  water. 

Stir  each  mixture  until  it  is  smooth,  noting  the  time  required  to 
obtain  results.  State  the  proportion  of  water  to  be  used  with 
flour  to  form  a  smooth  paste. 

Boil  I  c.  water,  add  some  of  the  boiling  water  to  part  (a),  stirring 
constantly.  Pour  this  slowly  into  the  rest  of  the  boiUng  water, 
stirring  until  it  thickens  and  is  smooth. 

Deduce  a  rule  for  using  starch  in  the  form  of  a  powder,  as  a 
thickening  agent.  Let  mixture  cool  and  note  how  it  forms  a  starch 
jelly. 

Experiment  23.  —  Method  2.  Rub  to  a  smooth  paste  1  tb. 
butter  and  1  tb.  flour.  Boil  ^  c.  water,  pour  part  of  it  on  the  butter 
and  flour  mixture  to  thin  it.  Pour  this  slowly  into  the  rest  of  the 
boiling  water,  stirring  until  it  thickens  and  is  smooth. 

Deduce  a  rule  for  using  starch  as  a  thickening  agent  when  some 
fat  is  used. 

Experiment  24.  —  Method  3.  Melt  1  tb.  butter,  add  1  tb.  flour ; 
when  well  mixed,  add  ^  c.  milk  or  water,  stirring  until  it  thickens 
and  is  smooth. 

Deduce  a  second  rule  for  thickening  with  starch  when  fat  is 
used.  Compare  results  with  those  of  the  two  previous  methods. 
Which  mixture  has  the  smoothest  and  richest  texture? 


24  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

Experiment  25,  —  Brown  1  tb.  butter,  add  1|  tb.  flour,  and  then 
brown  them  together ;  add  |  c.  water  or  soup  stock,  and  cook  until 
smooth. 

Deduce  method  of  making  a  brown  sauce.  How  would  you 
make  a  brown  gravy  for  meats  ?  Compare  thickness  of  liquid  with 
the  previous  experiments.  Is  more  browned  flour  required  for 
thickening?     Why? 

Meat  and  Vegetable  Sauces  are  of  two  general  varieties, 
white  and  brown,  and  from  these  many  sauces  may  be  pre- 
pared by  varying  the  ingredients  and  the  seasonings. 

General  Method  of  Making  Sauces.  —  Melt  the  butter  in 
a  stewpan  or  double  boiler,  add  the  flour,  and  when  well 
mixed,  add  the  liquid.  If  the  liquid  is  hot,  add  it  one-third 
at  a  time,  cooking  each  portion  till  thick  and  smooth.  If  the 
liquid  is  cold,  it  may  all  be  added  at  once,  stirring  constantly 
until  it  thickens  and  is  free  from  lumps.     Add  seasoning. 

This  method  gives  the  finest  quality  of  sauce,  but  methods 
of  thickening  1  or  2  may  be  used  when  the  liquid  is  already 
combined  with  the  meat  or  vegetable. 

PROPORTION    OF    FLOUR    FOR    SOUPS    AND    SAUCES 

1  tb.  flour  (J  to  1  tb.  butter)  to  1  c.  liquid  for  cream  soups. 

2  tb.  flour  (2  tb.  butter)  to  1  c.  liquid  for  ordinary  white 

sauce. 

3  tb.  flour  (2  to  3  tb.  butter)  to  1  c.  liquid  for  white  sauce 

for  creamed  oysters,  etc. 

4  tb.  flour  (2  to  4  tb.  butter)  to  1  c.  liquid  for  white  sauce 

for  croquettes,  etc. 
When  flour  is  browned  (dextrinized)  for  brown  sauce,  the 
amount  used  must  be  increased  J  tb.  for  every  cup  liquid, 
as  browning  causes  flour  to  lose  some   of   its   thickening 
power. 


CA  RBOJI YDRA  TES  25 

Cornstarch  Pudding 

Ufc'o  method  1  of  thickening  with  starch 
5  tb.  cornstarch  1  pt.  scalded  milk 

I  c.  sugar  I  ts.  salt 

■  J  c.  cold  milk  |  ts.  vanilla 

Scald  milk  in  double  boiler.  Mix  dry  ingredients  with  the  cold 
milk  and  stir  this  into  remainder  of  hot  milk.  Cook  fifteen  minutes. 
Add  vanilla.  Pour  into  a  mold  wet  in  cold  water;  let  stand  till 
cold.  Serve  with  sweetened  and  flavored  cream,  with  boiled  cus- 
tard, or  with  cooked  fruit.  One  half  square  melted  chocolate  may 
be  added  during  the  cooking. 

At  the  end  of  five  minutes  remove  1  ts.  of  mixture,  again  at  end 
of  ten  minutes,  and  at  end  of  fifteen  minutes.  Compare  the  taste 
of  the  three  samples.  How  long  should  cornstarch  mixtures  be 
cooked  ?    Whj^  does  the  pudding  thicken  as  it  cools  ? 

CEREALS 

The  grains  used  chiefly  in  the  United  States  for  breakfast 
foods  are  corn,  oats,  wheat,  and  rice. 

Corn  is  a  native  American  grain  and  is  the  most  abundant 
food  product  grown  in  the  United  States.  It  furnishes  more 
nourishment  for  the  money  exffended  than  most  of  our 
other  foods  and,  if  well  cooked,  can  be  made  into  many 
palatable  dishes. 

From  corn  are  prepared  cornstarch,  corn  meal,  corn  flour, 
hominy,  samp,  hulled  corn,  and  some  "  ready-to-eat  " 
cereals,  such  as  corn  flakes. 

Oats  are  grown  in  northern  regions  and  are  used  exten- 
sively for  porridge  and,  in  Scotland,  for  oat  cakes.  The 
old-fashioned  oatmeal,  which  was  sold  in  uncooked  form  and 
had  much  of  the  husk  left  on  it,  had  to  be  cooked  several 
hours;  the  modern  preparations,  such  as  rolled  oats,  for 
example,  are  steamed  and  while   still  moist  the  grains  are 


26 


DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


passed  between  hot  rollers;  they  are,  therefore,  partially 
cooked  and  require  less  cooking  in  the  home.  Oats  are  rich 
in  fat,  and  therefore  make  a  good  food  for  winter. 

Wheat,  when  finely  ground,  is  the  most  important  of 
bread  stuffs,  but  it  is  also  used  extensively  as  a  breakfast 
food.  Cracked  wheat  is  the  crushed  grain  with  part  of  the 
bran  left  on  it  and  should  be  cooked  for  several  hours. 
Special  parts  of  the  wheat  grain  are  used  in  preparing  va- 
rious breakfast  foods.  Some  breakfast  foods  are  prepared 
from  a  dough  made  of  wheat  flour,  baked,  then  dried  and 
toasted. 

From  wheat  are  prepared  graham,  entire  wheat,  and  white 
flour  of  various  grades,  many  breakfast  foods,  macaroni, 
spaghetti,  etc.    .  , 

Rice  is  a  grass  native  to  India.  It  is  the  staple  food  in 
all  tropical  and  semi-tropical  regions,  and  is  much  used  else- 
where. It  is  said  to  form  the  main  food  of  one-third  of 
the  human  race.  Being  deficient  in  fat  and  protein,  it 
usually  is  supplemented  with  foods  rich  in  these  two  food 
principles. 

TABLE   OF  COMPOSITION  OF  CEREALS   (ATWATER) 


Entire  wheat  flour 
Graham  flour 
White  flour  (medium) 
Wheat  breakfast  food 
Corn  meal      .     .     .     . 
Oat  breakfast  food 

Rice 

Rye  flour 

Macaroni        .     .     .     . 


Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

11.4 

13.8 

1.9 

11.3 

13.3 

2.2 

12.0 

11.4 

1.0 

9.6 

12.1 

1.8 

12.5 

9.2 

1.9 

7.7 

16.7 

7.3 

12.3 

8.0 

0.3 

12.9 

6.8 

0.9 

10.3 

13.4 

0.9 

Carbo-  ' 
hydrates 


Per  ct. 

71.9 
71.4 
75.1 
75.2 
75.4 
66.2 
79.0 
78.7 
74.1 


Ash 


Per  ct. 

1.0 
1.8 
0.5 

1.3 
1.0 
2.1 
0.4 
0.7 
1.3 


CAHHOIIYDHATKH, 


27 


Cooking  of  Cereals.  — ^Tho  chief  purposes  of  cooking  cereals 
iire : 

(1)  To  sterilize  them. 

(2)  To  improve  flavor  and  appearance. 

(3)  To  hydrate  the  starch  and  cellulose  and  rupture  the 
tissues,  in  order  to  make  them  more  easily  digestible. 

As  cereals  contain  from  66  to  79  per  cent  of  starch  and 
but  7  to  12  per  cent  of  water,  they  must  be  cooked  in  several 
times  their  volume  of  water.  Add  J  ts.  salt  for  every  pint 
of  water  used. 

TABLE  FOR  COOKING  CEREALS 


Amount  Dry 

Amount 

Time  of 

Cereal 

Water 

Cooking 

Rolled  Oats . 

1  C. 

2c. 

1  to  f  h. 

Rice      ......... 

1  C. 

2  to  21  c. 

Ih. 

Cream  of  wheat 

f  c. 

4  c. 

f  h. 

Corn  meal 

f  c. 

4  c. 

2h. 

Coarse  oatmeal 

1  c. 

4  c. 

3  1i. 

General  Method  of  Cooking  Cereals.  —  In  the  upper  part 
of  a  double  boiler  put  the  required  amount  of  water  and 
salt.  When  the  water  boils,  add  the  cereal  slowly,  stirring 
constantly.  Cook  for  five  minutes  directly  over  the  fire. 
Place  the  upper  boiler  in  the  lower  part  of  double  boiler 
containing  boiling  water,  cover  and  cook  the  required  time 
without  stirring.     All  cereals  must  be  thoroughly  cooked. 


Corn  Meal  Mush 

Moisten  the  corn  meal  with  |  c.  of  cold  water  before  stirring  it 
into  the  boiling  water,  to  avoid  having  the  mixture  lumpy.  Serve 
the  mush  hot,  or  put  into  square  molds,  or  baking  powder  cans, 
and,  when  cold,  remove  from  molds,  slice,  roll  in  flour,  and  sauter 
in  hot  fat. 


28 


DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 


To  wash  Rice.  —  Always  wash  rice  before  using  it,  by  put- 
ting it  into  a  strainer  and  putting  the  strainer  in  a  bowl  of 
cold  water,  changing  the  water  often  until  it  is  clear;  this 
removes  the  loose  starch  and  prevents  the  rice  from  becom- 
ing pasty  in  cooking. 

Baked  Rice 

Steam  1  c.  rice,  ^  ts.  salt  in  2j  c.  stock  or  water,  1  h. ;  add  1  c. 
tomato,  2  tb.  butter,  |  ts.  paprika,  or  a  little  chopped  green  pepper, 
^  ts.  curry  powder.  Cook  fifteen  minutes.  Put  into  buttered  bak- 
ing dish,  cover  top  with  buttered  crumbs,  and  bake  till  brown,  about 
twenty  minutes.  Curry  powder  may  be  omitted  and  grated  cheese 
to  taste  added  in  its  place. 

Home-made  "  Ready-to-eat  "  Cereals.  —  Heat  white,  rye, 
or  entire- wheat  bread  slowly  in  the  oven  until  thoroughly  dry 
and  a  golden  brown  in  color ;  cool  and  crush  with  a  rolling 
pin.  This  is  equal  in  flavor  and  digestibility  to  many  of 
the  breakfast  foods  on  the  market  and  may  be  prepared  at 
much  less  cost.     Serve  with  milk  or  cream. 

AMOUNT  OF  CEREAL  OBTAINED   FOR  TEN   CENTS 
{To  be  prepared  by  student) 


Price 

PER    LB. 

No.   LB.  FOE 

10  Cents 

Total  Amounts 

Cereal 

Protein 

Fats 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

1.  Cornmeal  .     . 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

.02 

5 

%  of  lb. 

46 

%  of  lb. 

9.5 

%  of  lb. 

377.0 

Weigh    ''  ready-to-eat "    breakfast    foods    and    compute 


CARBOHYDRATE!^^  29 

tlio  (n)st  per  poiiiul  p;ii(l  for  tlu^  corojil  wlicii  so  prepared  for 
the  market. 

To  serve  Cereals.  —  As  eeroals  ar(^  about  tliree-fourtlis 
starcli,  it  is  not  necessary  to  add  sugar,  which  is  but  another 
form  of  carbohydrate,  except  as  a  flavor.  As  they  are  defi- 
cient in  fat,  cream  is  a  valuable  addition.  Milk  increases 
both  the  amount  of  fat  and  protein.  If  fruits  are  served 
with  cereals,  they  supply  organic  acids,  in  which  the  cereals 
are  deficient,  as  well  as  mineral  matter  and  sugar. 

Fruits  to  serve  with  cereals : 

1.  Baked  apples  5.  Peaches 

2.  Stewed  prunes  6.  Figs  or  dates,  cut  in  pieces, 

3.  Berries  may   be    stirred    into    the 

4.  Sliced  bananas  cereal   before   it   is   taken 

from  the  fire 

Note.  —  Put  grains  of  corn,  oats,  rye,  in  wet  cotton  ;  place  them 
where  they  will  get  sunshine  and  keep  them  well  moistened  until  the 
grains  sprout.  Note  carefully  any  changes  in  the  grains  and  in 
the  consistency  of  their  starch  content.  Why  does  nature  store  the 
various  food  principles  in  the  grains  ?  What  part  of  the  plant  is 
the  grain?  Plant  some  of  the  grains  in  earth  in  flower  pots  and  let 
them  grow  to  maturity. 


CHAPTER  IV 
VEGETABLES 

COMPOSITION  OF  VEGETABLES   (ATWATER) 


Refuse 

P7 

Water 

Protein 

07 

Fat 

or 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Ash 

or 

/o 

/O 

yo 

/o 

% 

/O 

Beans,  dried .     .     . 

12.6 

22.5 

1.8 

59.6 

3.5 

Beans,  lima,  fresh- 

shelled  .... 

68.5 

7.1 

.7 

22.0 

1.7 

Beans,  string 

7.0 

83.0 

2.1 

.3 

6.9 

.7 

Beets 

20.0 

70.0 

1.3 

.1 

7.7 

.9 

Cabbage  .... 

15.0 

77.7 

1.4 

.2 

4.8 

.9 

Celery       .... 

20.0 

75.6 

.9 

.1 

2.6 

.8 

Corn,  green  edible 

portion       .     .     . 

75.4 

3.1 

1.1 

19.7 

.7 

Cucumbers    .      .      . 

15.0 

81.8 

.7 

2 

2.6 

.4 

Lettuce     .... 

15.0 

80.5 

1.0 

.2 

2.5 

.8 

Mushrooms  . 

88.1 

3.5 

.4 

6.8 

1.2 

Onions 

10.0 

78.9 

1.4 

.3 

8.9 

.5 

Parsnips   .... 

20.0 

66.4 

1.3 

.4 

10.8 

1.1 

Peas,  dried    . 

9.5 

24.6 

1.0 

62.0 

2.9 

Peas,  fresh-shelled 

74.6 

7.0 

.5 

16.9 

1.0 

Potatoes   .... 

20.0 

62.6 

1.8 

.1 

14.7 

.8 

Rhubarb  .... 

40.0 

56.6 

.4 

.4 

2.2 

.4 

Sweet  potatoes    .    . 

20.0 

55.2 

1.4 

.6 

21.9 

.9 

Spinach     .... 

92.3 

2.1 

.3 

3.2 

2.1 

Squash      .... 

50.0 

44.2 

.7 

2 

4.5 

.4 

Tomatoes       .     .     . 

94.3 

.9 

.4 

3.9 

.5 

Turnips     .... 

30.0 

62.7 

.9 

.1 

5.7 

.6 

Vegetables,  canned  . 

Baked  beans 

68.9 

6.9 

2.5 

19.6 

2.1 

Peas,  green    . 

85.3 

3.6 

.2 

9.8 

1.1 

Corn,  green  . 

76.1 

2.8 

1.2 

19.0 

.9 

Succotash      .     .     . 

75.9 

3.6 

1.0 

18.6 

.9 

Tomatoes      .     .     . 

94.0 

1.2 

4  .2 

4.0 

.6 

30 


ve(1I':tabli^:s 


31 


AMOUNT   OF   NUTRIENTS   OBTAINED   FOR  TEN    CENTS 
{To  he  prepared  by  sludent) 


Price  Vegetable 
per  lb. 


No.  OF  Lbs. 
for  10  cts. 


Total  Amounts 


Protein 
%  ot  lb. 


Fats  Carbohydrates 

%  of  lb.  %  of  lb. 


General  Composition  of  Vegetables.  —  Vegetable  foods, 
with  the  exception  of  cereals,  legumes,  and  nuts,  contain  a 
large  amount  of  water,  hence  a  small  amount  of  solid  nu- 
trients. Young,  fresh  vegetables  contain  a  sufficient  amount 
of  water  to  hydrate  the  starch  and  cellulose  content,  and  so 
may  be  cooked  without  the  addition  of  water.  Vegetables 
contain  but  a  small  amount  of  protein,  their  principal  solid 
being  a  carbohydrate,  either  in  the  form  of  starch,  sugar, 
pectin,  or  cellulose.  They  contain  mineral  matter  which  is 
highly  important  in  the  diet. 

PARTS  OF  PLANTS  USED  FOR  FOOD 

Seeds  —  Peas,  beans. 

Roots  —  Beets,  carrots,  turnips,  parsnips,  radishes,  sweet  potatoes, 

salsify. 
Tubers  —  White  potatoes,  Jerusalem  artichokes. 
Bulbs  —  Onions,  garlic,  shallots. 
Stems  —  Asparagus,  celery,  chives,  rhubarb. 
Leaves  —  Cabbage,   lettuce,   Brussels  sprouts,   beet  greens,  water 

cress,  spinach. 
Flowers  —  Cauliflower. 
Fruit  —  Wheat  and  the  grains,  cucumbers,  tomatoes,  egg  plant, 

squash. 
Fungi —  Mushrooms,  puff  balls. 


32  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

To  prepare  Vegetables  for  Cooking.  —  Vegetables  should 
be  thoroughly  cleaned  before  being  cooked.  A  small  scrub- 
bing brush  will  help  to  clean  potatoes  thoroughly  and 
quickly.  If  vegetables  are  wilted,  they  should  be  soaked  in 
cold  water  before  cooking.  Vegetables  that  are  to  be  eaten 
raw,  as  lettuce  and  celery,  must  be  cleaned  with  great  care, 
as  the  dirt  which  adheres  to  them  may  contain  disease-pro- 
ducing bacteria.  Radishes  and  other  small  vegetables  may 
be  dipped  quickly  into  boiling  water  to  destroy  bacteria  and 
then  into  ice  water  to  make  them  crisp.  Cabbages,  cauli- 
flower, Brussels  sprouts  should  be  soaked,  heads  down,  in 
cold  water  containing  salt  or  a  little  vinegar,  which  will 
drive  out  insects  that  may  be  present  in  them. 

General  Method  of  Cooking  Vegetables.  —  Most  of  the 
fresh  vegetables  should  be  put  into  boiling  salted  water  to 
cook,  the  amount  of  water  used  varying  with  the  amount 
present  in  the  vegetable  to  be  cooked.  Tomatoes  do  not 
require  the  addition  of  any  water,  and  spinach  may  be 
cooked  with  the  water  left  on  the  leaves  after  washing. 
Green  vegetables  should  boil  rapidly  during  the  cooking, 
but  for  potatoes  the  boiling  should  be  gentle,  that  -  the 
vegetable  may  not  be  broken.  To  prevent  them  from  being 
watery,  the  boiling  should  be  uninterrupted.  All  vegetables 
should  be  well  cooked,  but  they  should  remain  firm,  except 
for  soups.  They  should  be  thoroughly  drained,  and  such 
vegetables  as  spinach,  cabbage,  and  turnips  should  be  pressed 
lightly  to  remove  part  of  the  water.  Peas  and  beans  cannot 
be  cooked  tender  in  hard  water,  hence  the  salt  should  be  added 
during  the  last  part  of  the  cooking.  A  very  small  amount  of 
soda  may  be  added  to  the  water  in  which  the  beans  and 
peas  are  cooked  to  soften  the  water.  Vegetables  are  cooked 
to  soften  the  cellulose,  to  cause  the  starch  granules  to  swell 
and  burst,  to  coagulate  the  protein,  and  to  develop  flavor. 


VEGETABLES  33 

Potatoes.  —  Potatoes  are  native  to  South  America  and 
were  brought  from  there  to  North  America.  They  were 
introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  into  Ireland  by  Sir  John  Hawkins  in  1565,  and  into 
England  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1586. 

Potatoes  belong  botanically  to  the  same  family  as  the 
tobacco  and  deadly  nightshade.  They  contain  a  bitter 
juice  called  solanine,  which  lies  in  and  near  the  skin.  This 
is  drawn  out  into  the  water  when  they  are  boiled  or  is  given 
off  in  the  steam  when  they  are  baked.  For  this  reason 
the  custom  of  using  for  bread  making  the  water  in  which 
potatoes  have  been  boiled  is  not  desirable.  If  potatoes 
have  to  stand  after  being  baked,  they  should  be  pierced  with 
a  fork  to  allow  the  steam  to  escape. 

As  potatoes  are  deficient  both  in  protein  and  in  fat,  they 
are  usually  eaten  with  milk,  eggs,  etc.,  and  with  some  form 
of  fat.  The  protein  of  potatoes  is  largely  in  the  form  of 
albumen  which,  with  the  mineral  matter,  is  dissolved  in  the 
moisture  or  juice.  As  albumen  is  soluble  in  cold  water, 
there  is  an  appreciable  loss  of  it  when  the  potatoes  are  peeled, 
cut  in  pieces,  and  soaked  in  cold  wateri  When  potatoes 
are  placed  in  boiling  water,  the  starch  granules  swell  and 
burst  and  absorb  the  juice,  the  albumen  coagulates,  or  is 
absorbed  by  the  starch,  and  the  mineral  matter  also  is 
retained. 

Potatoes  should  be  kept  in  a  dry,  cool  place,  and  any 
sprouts  which  may  appear  should  be  removed. 

Boiled  Potatoes 

Wash  and  peel  potatoes,  put  them  into  boiling  salted  water, 
using  1  ts.  salt  to  every  quart  of  water.  Cook  about  thirty  minutes 
or  until  tender.  Drain  well.  Put  the  kettle,  uncovered,  on  the 
back  of  the  stove  and  shake  it  gently  to  allow  the  steam  to  escape 


34  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

and  make  the  potatoes  mealy.     Cover  the  kettle  with  a  towel, 
which  will  keep  them  hot  and  absorb  the  steam. 

Mashed  Potatoes 

Mash  potatoes  in  the  kettle  in  which  they  were  boiled,  beating 
until  hght  with  a  wire  potato  masher,  and  moistening  with  hot 
milk.  Add  1  or  2  tb.  butter,  ^  ts.  salt,  and  a  speck  of  pepper  to 
every  pint  of  potatoes.  When  beaten  until  white,  creamy,  and 
free  from  lumps,  pile  them  lightly  in  a  warm  vegetable  dish.  Serve 
very  hot.  ■ 

Baked  Potatoes 

Select  smooth  potatoes  of  uniform  size.  Wash  and  scrub  them 
well.  Place  in  a  hot  oven  and  bake  until  soft,  about  forty-five 
minutes.  Serve  at  once  in  an  uncovered  dish.  If  they  must  stand, 
pierce  with  a  fork,  or  break  the  skin,  to  let  the  steam  escape. 

Potatoes  are  more  digestible  when  baked  than  when  cooked  in 
any  other  way,  as  the  intense  heat  changes  some  of  the  starch  to 
dextrin,  and  all  the  mineral  matter  and  other  constituents  are 
retained. 

Escalloped  Potatoes 

Wash,  peel,  and  shce  raw  potatoes.  Put  in  layers  in  a  baking 
dish,  sprinkling  each  layer  with  salt,  pepper,  flour,  and  bits  of 
butter;  add  milk  to  nearly  cover.  Cover  the  dish  and  bake  1^  h. 
or  till  the  potato  is  soft.  Uncover  the  baking  dish  during  the  last 
half  hour  of  baking  to  brown  the  potatoes  well. 

Warmed-over  Potatoes  (Boiled) 
Lyonnaise  Potatoes 

1  pt.  cold  boiled  potatoes,  cut  into  2  tb.  minced  onions 

quarter  inch  cubes  2  tb.  drippings  or  lard 

^  ts.  salt  1  tb.  chopped  parsley 

§  ssp.  pepper 

Sprinkle  the  potatoes  with  the  salt  and  pepper.     Fry  the  onion 


VEGETABLES  35 

till  a  lij>;ht  hrowii  in  the  (Irippin-rs,  add  llu;  ])()ta.t()cs;  stir  with  a 
fork  until  they  arc  brown ;  add  i\\v.  i)arsl('y  and  serve.  1  tb. 
vinegar  may  be  added. 

Stewed  Potatoes 

1  pt.  cold  boiled  potatoes,  diced  1  or  2  tb.  butter 

^  cmilk  ^  ts.  salt 

I  ssp.  pepper  1  ts.  chopped  parsley 

Heat  the  milk,  add  the  butter  and  seasoning  and  the  potatoes. 
Simmer  gently  until  the  milk  is  absorbed.  Sprinkle  with  parsley 
and  serve. 

Creamed  Potatoes 

Cut  one  scant  pint  potatoes  into  one-fourth  inch  dice,  sprinkle 
them  with  |  ts.  salt,  ^  ssp.  pepper ;  add  them  to  1  c.  white  sauce, 
and  when  well  heated,  sprinkle  with  1  tb.  chopped  parsley  and 
serve. 

Potatoes  au  Gratin 

Slice  3  c.  potatoes,  sprinkle  with  1  ts.  salt  and  1  ssp.  pepper. 
Make  1  pt.  white  sauce.  Put  potatoes  and  sauce  in  alternate  layers 
in  a  baking  dish,  having  sauce  for  the  top  layer.  Cover  with  but- 
tered crumbs.  Bake  twenty-five  minutes  or  until  brown.  Grated 
cheese,  chopped  green  pepper,  sliced  hard-boiled  eggs,  or  1  tb. 
minced  onion  may  be  added  to  the  layers. 

To  butter  crumbs.  —  To  1  tb,  melted  butter,  add  |  c.  fine  bread 
crumbs.     Mix  well. 

Hashed  Brown  Potatoes 

Chop  1  pt.  cold  boiled  potatoes,  season  highly  with  salt  and 
pepper,  moisten  them  with  ^  c.  white  sauce.  Put  1  ts.  lard  and 
butter  mixed  in  a  thick  iron  frying  pan;  when  hot,  put  in  the 
potatoes  and  flatten  into  a  cake.  Cook  slowly,  without  stirring, 
keeping  the  pan  covered  until  a  brown  crust  forms,  about  twenty 
minutes.     Fold  once  and  turn  on  to  a  hot  platter. 


36  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

Warmed-over  Potatoes  (Mashed) 

Shape  cold  mashed  potatoes  into  small  round  cakes  about  one- 
half  inch  thick.  Brush  with  milk  or  egg  beaten  with  a  little  milk, 
and  bake  in  a  hot  oven  until  brown.  Or,  roll  the  cakes  in  flour 
and  sauter  in  hot  fat,  browning  both  sides. 

Potato  Puff 

To  1  pt.  mashed  potatoes,  add  |  c.  milk,  2  tb.  butter,  more  salt 
and  pepper  if  needed,  1  tb.  chopped  parsley,  ^  ts.  onion  juice, 
cayenne,  or  paprika  to  taste,  and  1  beaten  egg.  Pile  lightly  in  a 
baking  dish  and  bake  in  a  hot  oven  until  brown,  about  twenty 
minutes.     Serve  in  the  dish  in  which  it  is  baked. 

To  chop  parsley.  —  Wash  parsley,  remove  the  leaves,  and  dry  in 
a  towel  or  absorbent  paper.  Place  on  a  board,  gather  the  leaves 
closely  between  thumb  and  finger,  and  cut  through.  If  the  point 
of  the  knife  is  held  firmly  on  the  board,  a  circular  and  also  a  chop- 
ping motion  can  be  given  to  it  at  the  same  time. 

To  mince  onions.  —  Remove  the  brown  outer '  covering  of  the 
onion  about  halfway  down;  score  the  top  of  the  onion  in  gashes 
about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  apart ;  score  again  at  a  right  angle, 
then  slice  across  the  onion. 

Experiment  26.  —  Test  turnip  with  iodine  for  starch.  Is  the 
carbohydrate  present  in  the  form  of  starch? 

Turnips.  —  Turnips  are  at  their  best  in  the  fall  and  early 
winter;  toward  spring  they  become  tough  and  fibrous  and 
are  only  good  for  flavoring  and  for  stews.  The  flat  purple- 
topped  turnip,  the  rutabaga,  a  large  yellow  turnip,  and  the 
large  French  turnip  are  the  best  varieties.  Turnips  should 
not  be  overcooked,  or  they  will  become  dark  in  color  and 
strong  in  flavor.  The  summer  turnip,  when  sliced,  can 
be  cooked  in  thirty  minutes,  the  winter  turnip  in  from 
forty-five  to  sixty  minutes. 


VEGETABLES  37 

To  prepare  turnips.  —  Wash  and  pare  the  turnips,  and  if  they  are 
to  be  boiled  and  mashed,  sUce  them. 

To  boil  and  mash  turnips.  —  Prepare  as  above  and  cook  in  boil- 
ing salted  water  until  tender.  Drain  well.  Mash  with  a  wooden 
masher  and  season  with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter.     Serve  at  once. 

Creamed  Turnips 

After  washing  and  peeling,  cut  the  turnips  into  one-fourth  inch 
dice;  cook  in  boihng  salted  water  until  tender.  Drain  well.  To 
every  pint  of  turnips,  add  one  cup  of  white  sauce.  Reheat  and 
serve. 

Turnip  Cups  with  Creamed  Pea  Filling 

Select  small,  round  turnips.  Wash,  pare,  and  cut  a  slice  from 
the  large  end,  so  they  will  stand.  Scoop  out  the  inside,  forming 
cups  with  walls  about  one-fourth  inch  thick.  Cook  in  boiling 
salted  water  until  tender,  about  thirty  minutes.  Drain  well  and 
fill  each  cup  with  peas,  heated  in  a  seasoned  white  sauce.  Sprinkle 
with  chopped  parsley  and  serve  hot. 

Experiment  27.  —  Test  carrot  with  iodine  for  starch.  Is  the 
carbohydrate  present  in  the  form  of  starch  ?    " 

Carrots.  —  When  carrots  are  boiled  in  water,  large  amounts 
of  their  carbohydrate,  in  the  form  of  sugar,  and  of  their 
protein,  in  the  form  of  albumen,  are  lost  in  the  water.  They 
are  of  value  as  a  food  because  of  their  flavor  and  because  of 
their  cellulose,  which  aids  in  the  process  of  digestion. 

To  prepare  carrots.  —  Carrots  need  not  be  peeled ;  after  being 
well  scrubbed  they  should  be  scraped  with  a  knife ;  young  car- 
rots may  not  need  even  to  be  scraped. 

Carrots  in  Bechamel  Sauce 

Prepare  carrots  and  cut  in  one-fourth  inch  dice,  or  in  thin  strips 
about  the  size  of  a  match  and  one  inch  long.     Cook  in  boiling  salted 


38  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

water  until  tender;    drain,  and  reheat  in  one-half  their  bulk  of 
Bechamel  Sauce. 

Bechamel  Sauce 

Melt  2  tb.  butter,  add  2  tb.  flour;  stir  in  1^  c.  milk,  as  in  white 
sauce ;  add  \  ts.  salt,  §  ssp.  pepper.  When  it  has  thickened,  add 
the  beaten  yolks  of  1  or  2  eggs. 

To  add  yolk  of  egg  to  a  hot  liquid.  —  Beat  the  yolks  slightly,  add 
some  of  the  hot  liquid  to  them  until  thin  enough  to  pour ;  stir 
into  the  remainder  of  the  hot  liquid- and  cook  until  the  egg  thickens 
the  mixture  shghtly,  but  do  not  let  the  mixture  boil,  or  the  sauce 
will  separate. 

Tomatoes.  —  The  tomato  is  probably  a  native  of  Mexico 
or  Peru.  There  are  several  varieties,  some  having  red  and 
others  having  yellow  fruit.  While  the  tomato  is  largely  water 
and  hence  has  a  low  nutritive  value,  It  forms  one  of  our 
most  useful  vegetables.  W^hen  overcooked,  the  tomato  be- 
comes dark  in  color  and  the  flavor  is  impaired. 

To  prepare  tomatoes.  —  Pour  boiling  water  over  them  and  remove 
the  skins.  If  they  are  to  be  served  raw,  do  not  pour  the  hot  water 
on  them,  but  rub  the  skin  with  the  back  of  a  knife,  when  it  will 
come  off  easily. 

Stewed  Tomatoes 

Peel  tomatoes,  slice,  and  cook  until  they  are  tender,  which  will 
be  about  twenty  minutes.  About  five  minutes  before  the  cooking 
is  finished,  season,  using  1  ts.  salt,  1  ts.  sugar,  1  tb.  butter,  and  ^ 
ssp.  pepper  for  every  quart  tomatoes.  Small  pieces  of  bread  may 
be  added  if  desired. 

Creamed  Tomatoes 

Peel  and  slice  two  tomatoes,  sprinkle  with  salt  and  pepper,  and 
sauter  in  2  tb.  hot  butter;  when  soft,  put  the  slices  on  a  serving 
dish  and  keep  warm.     Put  1  c.  milk  in  the  pan  in  which  the  toma- 


VEGETABLES  39 

toes  wore  cookcMl,  iJiickcii  with  2  tb.  flour  according  to  Method  1 
for  thickening.  Season  and  pour  over  the  tomatoes.  Serve  hot. 
1  pt.  milk  and  4  tb.  flour  may  be  used  if  more  sauce  is  desired. 

Stuffed  Tomatoes 

Wipe  and  remove  sUces  from  the  stem  ends  of  six  medium-sized  - 
tomatoes.  Remove  seeds  and  pulp,  salt  the  insides  of  the  tomatoes 
well,  invert  them,  and  let  stand  while  the  other  ingredients  are  being 
prepared.  Cook  1  tb.  minced  onion  and  3  tb.  chopped  bacon  five 
minutes,  add  1^  c.  bread  crumbs,  ^  c.  chopped  meat,  and  the  tomato 
pulp  and  cook  five  minutes.  Season  with  salt  and  pepper.  One 
egg  slightly  beaten  may  be  added.  Fill  the  tomatoes  with  the 
mixture,  sprinkle  with  buttered  crumbs  (and  a  little  sugar,  if  de- 
sired), and  bake  until  brown,  about  twenty  minutes.  The  chopped 
meat  may  be  omitted. 

Stuffed  Green  Peppers 

Remove  the  stem  end  from  the  peppers  and  take  out  all  the 
seeds  and  partitions.  Remove  small  slices  from  the  blossom  ends 
so  that  they  will  stand.  Cover  peppers  with  boiling  water,  allow 
to  stand  five  minutes  and  drain.  Use  the  same  stuffing  as  for 
tomatoes.  Bake  one-half  hour  in  moderate  oven,  basting  with  a 
little  hot  water  or  stock.  Boiled  rice  may  be  used  in  place  of 
bread  crumbs. 

Experiment  28. — Test  onion  with  iodine  for  starch;  with 
Fehling  solution  for  sugar.  In  what  form  is  the  carbohydrate 
found  in  onions  ? 

Onions.  —  The  onion  is  a  native  of  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains. It  contains  an  essential,  volatile  oil  which  gives  it 
the  characteristic  odor  and  flavor;  when  eaten,  this  oil  is 
absorbed  by  the  blood  and  brought  to  the  lungs,  so  the  odor 
will  remain  for  some  time  on  the  breath.  The  onion  is  con- 
sidered a  wholesome,  if  not  a  highly  nutritious  vegetable  and 


40  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

is  of  value  because  of  its  stimulating  action  upon  the  diges- 
tive tract. 

Boiled  Onions 

Peel  the  onions  under  cold  water.  Put  them  into  a  sauce  pan 
of  boiling  water,  boil  five  minutes,  drain ;  cover  again  with  boiling 
water,  cook  ten  minutes,  drain ;    re-cover  with  boiling  water,  add 

1  ts.  salt  to  every  quart  water  and  cook  until  tender,  about  forty- 
five  minutes.     Drain,  add  milk  in  desired  amount,  and  thicken  with 

2  tb.  butter  and  2  tb.  flour  (Method  2  for  thickening)  for  every 
cup  milk.     Season  and  serve. 

Boiled  Cabbage 

Remove  outer  leaves,  cut  cabbage  in  quarters  and  soak  one-half 
hour  in  cold  water  with  1  tb.  salt.  Put  into  a  large  kettle  nearly 
filled  with  rapidly  boiling  water,  add  \  ts.  soda.  Cook  twenty 
minutes  uncovered ;  drain,  cover  again  with  boiling  water,  add  1  ts. 
salt  to  every  quart  water.  Cook  twenty  minutes  or  until  tender, 
but  do  not  overcook.  Drain  and  serve  as  desired.  A  white  sauce 
may  be  poured  over  it,  or  salt,  pepper,  and  butter  may  be  added. 

Escalloped  Cabbage 

Put  alternate  layers  of  chopped  boiled  cabbage,  white  sauce, 
and  grated  cheese  in  a  baking  dish.  Cover  with  buttered  crumbs 
and  bake  twenty  minutes,  or  until  brown. 

Beans.  —  Beans  and  peas  being  richer  in  protein  than  any 
other  vegetable  food  are  often  used  as  substitutes  for  meat ; 
being  deficient  in  fat,  salt  pork  or  some  other  fat  may  be 
added  in  the  cooking.  Dried  beans  are  more  easily  digested 
if  the  skin  is  removed.  Beans  and  peas,  as  before  stated, 
do  not  cook  tender  in  hard  water  and  a  little  soda  added  to 
the  water  in  which  they  are  first  boiled  will  help  soften 
them. 


VEGETABLES  41 


Baked  Beans 


Soak  1  qt.  pea  beans  over  night.  Drain,  cover  with  fresh  water, 
add  1  ssp.  soda,  and  boil  about  twenty  minutes.  Drain.  Boil  | 
lb.  salt  pork  twenty  minutes.  In  the  bottom  of  a  bean  pot  put 
1  whole  onion,  the  salt  pork,  then  the  beans.  Mix  |  ts.  mustard, 
3  ts.  salt  in  I  c.  molasses  and  pour  over  the  beans.  Cover  beans 
with  the  water  in  which  the  pork  has  boiled.  Cover  the  crock, 
closely  and  bake  in  a  very  slow  oven  from  four  to  six  hours.  Add 
water  as  needed,  keeping  them  nearly  covered  with  water  until 
the  last  hour  of  baking. 

Succotash 

1  pt.  fresh  lima  beans  2  tb.  butter  or  2  oz.  salt  pork 

1  pt.  corn  cut  from  cob  salt  and  pepper 

1  c.  milk 

Cook  beans  and  pork  in  boihng  water  thirty  minutes,  add  |  ts. 
soda,  boil  one  minute,  and  drain. 

Remove  corn  from  cob  by  scoring  down  the  center  of  each  row 
of  kernels,  pressing  out  pulp  with  the  back  of  the  knife,  leaving 
the  skins  on  the  cob.  Add  the  corn  to  the  beans,  and  the  milk 
(and  butter  if  used),  and  cook  fifteen  minutes ;  add  salt  and  pepper 
and  cook  five  minutes  longer.     Serve. 

Succotash  may  also  be  made  from  dried  corn  and  beans,  soaked 
over  night  and  cooked  several  hours  with  a  piece  of  salt  pork. 

Corn  Fritters 

1  pint  corn,  grated  or  removed  from  cob  as  above,  or  if  canned, 
chopped  fine.  Canned  Kornlet  is  ready  to  use  for  fritters.  Add 
to  the  corn  6  tb.  flour,  1  ts.  salt,  |  ssp.  pepper,  beaten  yolks  of  2  eggs. 
If  canned  corn  is  used,  it  may  be  necessary  to  add  2  tb.  milk.  Fold 
in  beaten  whites  of  2  eggs.  Sauter  by  dropping  by  tablespoonful 
into  hot  lard,  browning  on  both  sides.  Serve  on  a  warm  platter, 
but  do  not  pile  them  one  on  another.  One-half  ts.  baking  powder 
may  be  substituted  for  1  egg. 

Macaroni.  —  Macaroni  is  served  as  a  vegetable.     It  is 


42  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

made  from  a  wheat  flour  rich  in  gluten.  When  cooked  with 
cheese  and  milk,  it  forms  a  highly  nutritious  food.  It  is  the 
staple  food  of  the  Italians.  As  a  preliminary  to  any  of  the 
many  methods  of  preparation,  macaroni  should  be  cooked 
until  tender  in  boiling  salted  water,  which  will  require  about 
thirty  minutes. 

Baked  Macaroni  and  Cheese 

Put  in  a  baking  dish  alternate  layers  of  boiled  macaroni,  white 
sauce,  and  grated  cheese.  Season  the  ^auce  with  salt,  cayenne,  and 
mustard.  Put  buttered  crumbs  over  the  top  and  bake  about  thirty 
minutes,  or  till  well  browned. 

Macaroni  and  Tomato  Sauce 

Reheat  boiled  macaroni  in  tomato  sauce.  Variety  can  be  se- 
cured by  sprinkling  the  macaroni  with  grated  cheese;  or  all  may 
be  put  into  a  baking  dish,  covered  with  buttered  crumbs,  and  baked 
till  brown. 

Tomato  Sauce 

1  pt.  stewed  tomatoes  \  bay  leaf 

1  slice  onion  1  sprig  parsley 

Cook  ten  minutes;    strain.     Make  a  sauce,  using  2  tb.  butter, 
2  tb.  flour,  and  the  strained  tomato, 
ssp.  pepper. 


CHAPTER   V 
SUGAR  AND  FRUITS 

Plants  store  their  carbohydrates  in  part  in  the  form  of 
sugar.  Cane  sugar,  or  sucrose  (C12H22O11),  was  formerly 
obtained  almost  entirely  from  the  sugar  cane,  but  now  the 
largest  amount  of  sugar  on  the  market  comes  from  the  sugar 
beet.  Chemically,  cane  sugar  and  beet  sugar  have  the  same 
properties  and  cannot  be  distinguished.  In  the  refining  of 
sugar  the  juices  of  the  cane  or  beet  are  extracted  by  crush- 
ing and  pressure,  and  then  go  through  a  process  of  purifica- 
tion ;  the  resulting  liquid  is  boiled  down  to  a  state  of  crystal- 
lization. As  all  the  sugar  will  not  crystallize,  this  liquid  is 
drained  off  and  constitutes  molasses.  When  heated,  cane 
sugar  melts  and  forms  barley  sugar,  and  at  a  still  higher 
temperature,  caramel  is  formed ;  this  latter  has  a  brown 
color  and  distinctive  flavor  and  is  used  for  coloring  and 
flavoring  in  cookery.  Sugar  loses  part  of  its  sweetness  by 
this  process. 

Maple  sugar  (C12H22O11)  is  obtained  by  boiling  down  the 
sap  of  the  maple  tree. 

Lactose  or  milk  sugar  (C12H22O11)  is  present  in  the  milk  of 
all  mammals.  It  is  the  form  of  carbohydrate  that  is  best 
for  a  young  child  until  it  is  a  year  old.  Lactose  is  obtained 
commercially  from  the  whey  left  as  a  residue  in  cheese 
making.  It  is  not  as  sweet  as  cane  sugar.  When  milk  is 
modified  for  infant  feeding,  lactose  is  the  form  of  sugar 
which  should  be  added. 

Glucose  or  grape  sugar  (C6H12O6)  is  widely  distributed  in 

43 


44  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

nature  and  is  found  in  fruits  and  plant  juices,  and  in  small 
amount  in  the  blood  of  animals.  It  is  not  as  sweet  as  cane 
sugar  and  does  not  crystallize  as  readily.  It  is  usually  sold 
in  the  form  of  a  clear,  heavy  syrup. 

Glucose  is  obtained  commercially  by  treating  starch  with 
an  acid,  which  causes  the  following  change  to  take  place : 

CeHioOs  +  H2O  =  C6H12O6 
Cane  sugar  is  inverted,  or  changed  to  glucose,  when  boiled 
with  an  acid.  Acid  fruits  which  are  cooked  for  some  time 
with  sugar  are,  therefore,  not  as  sweet  as  when  the  same 
amount  of  sugar  is  added  after  cooking.  Glucose  will  fer- 
ment with  the  action  of  yeast,  but  cane  sugar  must  first  be 
changed  to  glucose  by  the  enzyme  of  yeast  before  fermenta- 
tion will  take  place. 

Note.  —  Show  samples  of  cane  sugar,  beet  sugar,  milk  sugar, 
glucose. 

Experiment  29.  —  Put  I  c.  sugar  in  an  omelet  pan  and  stir 
over  a  moderate  fire  until  it  melts.  Remove  a  portion  of  the  syrup, 
which  is  barley  sugar.  Continue  the  heating  until  the  mixture 
browns  slightly.  Pour  all  but  a  small  amount  of  this  on  an  un- 
greased  tin  to  cool.  This  is  caramel.  Continue  heating  a  small 
amount  of  the  sugar  until  it  buriis  or  carbonizes. 

Experiment  30.  —  Pour  sulphuric  acid  (H2SO4)  on  a  small 
amount  of  dry  sugar.  The  acid  will  remove  the  water  (H2O). 
What  other  element  is  present  in  sugar  ?  Repeat  experiment  with 
glucose. 

Fehling  Solution.  —  Five  cubic  centimeters  of  copper  sulphate 
solution,  5  cubic  centimeters  of  alkaline  Rochelle  salts,  20  cubic  cen- 
timeters of  water. 

Boil  all  together  for  two  minutes. 

Identification  Test  for  Glucose.  —  Fehling  solution  will  change 
from  a  blue  color  to  a  copper  brown  when  boiled  with  glu- 
cose; it  will  not  so  change  when  boiled  with  sucrose  or  cane 
sugar. 


SUGAR  AND  FRUITS  45 

lOxi'EKiMENT  31.  --  Mix  u  liUJc  o;liic()S(«  and  vvutor.  Add  a  small 
aiiioimt  of  Fchliiij^  solutioii  and  boil. 

Experiment  32.  —  Mix  a  little  cano  sugar  and  water.  Add  a 
small  amount  of  Fehling  solution  and  boil.  There  will  be  no  change 
of  color  if  the  sugar  is  pure  and  the  Fehling  solution  has  been 
freshly  mixed. 

Experiment  33.  —  Test  the  juices  of  various  fruits  or  small, 
pieces  of  vegetables  boiled  in  water  with  Fehhng  solution.  In 
what  form  of  sugar  do  many  of  the  plants  store  part  of  their  car- 
bohydrates ? 

Candy  Making.  —  See  experiments  with  boiling  sugar  under 
"  Boiling/'  page  15. 

Fondant 

Mix  2  c.  sugar  and  f  c.  water.  Put  in  a  stewpan  and  heat. 
As  it  begins  to  boil,  wipe  down  the  sides  of  the  kettle  with  a  wet 
cloth.  Sprinkle  on  |  ts.  cream  of  tartar  and  let  it  boil  in,  but  do 
not  stir  the  syrup.  Cover  the  kettle  for  a  minute  or  two  or  until 
the  steam  comes  out  around  the  cover.  Remove  cover  and  cook 
syrup  to  238°  F.  or  until  it  forms  a  soft  ball  when  tested  in  ice  water. 
Pour  syrup  on  a  slightly  dampened  platter  and  let  stand  without 
disturbing  until  all  the  heat  has  left  it.  Work  back  and  forth 
with  a  wooden  paddle  or  knife  until  the  mixture  creams.  Knead 
into  a  smooth  ball.  Put  into  a  closely  covered  fruit  jar  until 
ready  to  use.  The  quality  of  the  fondant  improves  upon  stand- 
ing, but  it  must  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  place  and  be  closely 
covered. 

To  shape.  —  Add  desired  flavoring,  nuts,  etc.,  to  fondant  and 
knead  until  mixed.  Shape  as  desired,  putting  candies  as  formed 
on  white  table  oilcloth  or  on  paraffine  paper. 

To  coat  with  chocolate.  —  Melt  unsweetened  chocolate  over  hot 
water,  adding  a  few  shavings  of  paraffine ;  remove  from  water  and 
let  cool  a  little.  Dip  fondant  balls  into  it,  using  a  fork ;  drain  off 
as  much  chocolate  as  possible  and  put  candies  on  white  oilcloth 
or  marble  slab.     Let  stand  until  firm. 


46 


DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


Cream  Mints 

Melt  fondant  over  hot  water,  stirring  constantly;  flavor  with 
peppermint  or  wintergreen  to  taste,  and  add  desired  coloring.  Drop 
from  the  tip  of  a  spoon  on  to  oilcloth  or  paraffine  paper.  If  the 
mixture  becomes  too  thick,  add  a  few  drops  of  boiling  water. 

Note.  —  Weigh  candies  and  compute  their  cost. 


FRUITS 

COMPOSITION  OF  FRUITS   (OLSEN) 


Water 

Sugar 

Protein 

Acid 

Ash 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

Apples 

85.4 

11.27 

0.64 

0.7 

0.27 

Bananas     .     . 

73.8 

21.7 

1.17 

0.3 

0.5 

Blackberries  . 

86.3 

10.9 

1.3 

0.77 

0.5 

Cranberries    . 

88.9 

9.9 

0.4 

2.34 

0.2 

Grapes 

80.12 

16.5 

1.26 

0.59 

0.5 

Huckleberries 

81.9 

16.5 

0.6 

0.3 

Lemons 

88.0 

0.37 

5.39 

Oranges 

86.0 

5.65 

1.35 

Peaches      .     . 

88.0 

10.8 

0.7 

0.56 

0.7 

Pineapples 

85.19  • 

12.22 

0.48 

0.77 

0.42 

Plums   .     .     . 

78.4 

13.25 

0.4 

1.0 

0.52 

Strawberries  . 

90.0 

7.0 

0.9 

1.1 

0.6 

Raspberries    . 

84.0 

12.6 

1.7 

1.48 

0.6 

Fruits  are  composed  largely  of  water ;  their  solids  consist 
of  carbohydrates,  a  small  amount  of  protein,  and  some 
mineral  matter.  Although  their  food  value  is  low,  fruits  form 
a  very  valuable  addition  to  the  diet,  for  they  contain  mineral 
matter  in  an  organic  form  in  which  it  can  be  readily  absorbed 
by  the  system.  Their  organic  acids  have  medicinal  proper- 
ties and  can  also  be  oxidized  in  the  human  system  to  provide 
heat  and  other  forms  of  energy.  Fruits  differ  from  vege- 
tables in  that  their  carbohydrates  are  largely  in  the  form  of 
sugar,  hence  they  can  be  eaten  without  cooking ;    cooking, 


SUGAR   AND   FRUITS  47 

however,  softens  the  ('(^llulose,  thus  making  the  fruit  more 
digestible. 

Care  and  Preparation  of  Fruits.  —  Th(^  deeay  of  fruits  is 
due  to  the  action  of  bacteria,  their  wilting  to  the  loss  of 
water ;  they  should,  therefore,  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  place. 
Large  fruits,  as  pears  and  peaches,  should  be  wrapped  sepa- 
rately in  paper,  that  they  may  not  be  bruised.  Fruits  may 
be  kept  in  good  condition  for  some  months  by  being  placed 
in  cold  storage.  As  there  is  danger  of  harmful  bacteria 
clinging  to  fruits,  especially  to  those  that  have  been  trans- 
ported long  distances  or  that  have  been  exposed  to  the 
dust  of  the  streets,  all  fruit  that  is  to  be  eaten  raw  should 
be  first  carefully  washed. 

Dried  fruits  regain  their  original  bulk  and,  in  part,  their 
flavor,  when  soaked  in  water,  and  they  form  a  relatively 
cheap  source  of  fruit  supply  during  the  winter  months.  Pre- 
served fruits,  jams,  and  jellies  also  form  a  valuable  addition 
to  the  winter  diet. 

Pectin.  —  Another  constituent  of  fruits  is  pectin,  which 
causes  the  juices  to  form  a  jelly  when  boiled  with  sugar. 
Pectin  is  a  carbohydrate  and  is  at  its  best  when  fruit  is  just 
ripe,  or  a  little  before  it  ripens.  If  fruit  is  overripe,  or  if 
the  juice  ferments,  or  if  it  is  boiled  too  long  with  the  sugar 
in  making  jelly,  the  pectin  undergoes  a  chemical  change  and 
loses  its  power  of  jellying.  Pectin  will  produce  jelly  only 
in  the  presence  of  a  definite  amount  of  organic  acid,  one- 
half  per  cent  of  acid  being  about  the  amount  required  to 
make  a  good  jelly;  hence,  fruits  which  contain  but  little 
acid  must  be  made  into  jelly  before  they  are  ripe,  or  be 
cooked  with  acid  fruits,  or  some  lemon  juice  or  cream  of 
tartar  be  added  to  them. 

Identification  Test  for  Pectin.  —  Mash  the  fruit,  warm,  and  strain 
through  a  cheesecloth.     Put  a  small  amount  of  juice  in  a  test  tube 


48  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

and  add  an  equal  volume  of  alcohol ;  shake  well  and  let  stand.     The 
pectin  will  settle  out  in  a  gelatinous  precipitate. 

Experiment  34.  —  Test  various  fruits,  noting  the  amount  and 
quality  of  the  precipitate. 

Apples.  —  The  apple  is  a  native  of  Asia,  the  crab  apple 
being  the  original  or  wild  apple.  The  Romans. used  apples 
centuries  ago.  The  apple  is  one  of  our  most  wholesome 
-fruits,  eaten  either  raw  or  cooked.  Some  of  the  best  known 
varieties  are  named  here. 

Cooking  apples:  Greening,  Northern  Spy,  Baldwin,  Maiden 
Blush. 

Eating  apples:   Snow,  Bellflower,  Rambo,  etc. 

Apple  Sauce 

Pare  and  slice  6  tart  apples  into  a  granite  stewpan;  add  1  c. 
water.  Cover  kettle  and  cook  until  apples  are  soft,  add  sugar 
and  nutmeg  to  taste.  Mash,  or  put  through  a  colander  as  desired. 
I  ts.  butter  may  be  added  for  flavor. 

Dried  Apple  Sauce 

Pick  over  and  wash  the  dried  apples  and  soak  in  cold  water  over 
night.  Cook  until  soft  in  the  water  in  which  they  were  soaked. 
Mash,  sweeten  to  taste,  and  flavor  with  lemon  juice. 

Baked  Apples,  No.  i 

Select  apples  of  uniform  size ;  wash  and  core.  Put  into  baking 
dish,  cover  bottom  of  dish  with  water.  Bake  for  about  thirty 
minutes,  basting  occasionally.  They  may  be  served  with  breakfast 
foods. 

Baked  Apples,  No.  2 

Core  and  pare  apples;  put  in  a  baking  dish,  fill  the  centers  of 
the  apples  with  sugar,  add  a  small  piece  of  butter ;  cover  the  bottom 


SUGAR  AND  FRUITS  49 

of  the  pan  with  water.  Bake  until  tender,  basting  often.  After 
taking  from  oven,  sprinkle  lightly  with  cinnamon  and  granulated 
sugar,  or  put  red  jelly  in  the  centers. 

Apple  Compote 

Pare  and  quarter  four  apples.  Make  a  syrup  with  H  c.  sugar 
and  1|  c.  water.  Boil  five  minutes.  Cook  the  apples  in  the  syrup 
until  tender,  but  do  not  let  the  pieces  break.  Remove  the  apples 
and  put  in  a  mold.  Soak  |  box  gelatine  in  |  c.  cold  water,  add  to 
the  hot  syrup,  and  stir  till  dissolved.  Add  the  juice  and  grated  rind 
of  ^  lemon,  pour  mixture  over  the  apples,  and  let  stand  until  firm. 
Remove  from  mold  and  serve  with  cream  sweetened  and  flavored 
with  vanilla. 

Cranberries.  — Cranberries  are  the  fruit  of  a  small  shrub 
which  grows  in  marshy  ground.  They  ripen  in  October  and 
are  valuable  because  of  their  excellent  keeping  qualities. 
Some  of  the  best  varieties  are  grown  on  Cape  Cod  and  in 
New  Jersey.  Cranberry  bogs  are  also  found  in  Michigan 
and  other  parts  of  the  country. 

Cranberry  Sauce 

Wash  and  look  over  1  pt.  cranberries.  Put  them  in  a  stewpan 
with  1  c.  sugar  and  f  c.  water;  cover  the  pan  and  let  them  boil 
ten  minutes  without  stirring ;   remove  the  scum  and  let  them  cool. 

Cranberry  Jelly 

Wash  and  look  over  1  qt.  cranberries.  Cook  with  2  c.  water 
twenty  minutes;  strain;  add  2  c.  sugar  and  boil  five  minutes  or 
until  it  jelhes.     Pour  into  a  mold  and  let  stand  until  it  is  firm. 


CHAPTER  VI 
FOOD  PRESERVATION 

Classification  of  Plants.  —  1.  Green  plants  contain  chloro- 
phyll grains  in  their  leaves,  which  give  them  the  power  of 
converting  the  carbon  dioxide  of  the  air  and  water  from  the 
ground  into  carbohydrates.  They  feed  upon  inorganic  sub- 
stances in  the  soil  in  which  they  grow. 

2.  Colorless  plants  or  fungi  do  not  contain  chlorophyll 
grains.  They  feed  upon  organic  substances  in  presence  of 
warmth  and  moisture. 

Classification  of  Fungi.  —  1 .  Higher  fungi  include  mush- 
rooms, toadstools,  wood  fungi,  etc. 

2.  Molds  consist  of  a  dense  mass  of  fibers.  They  produce 
spores  or  reproductive  bodies  which  sometimes  float  in  the 
air,  settle  upon  organic  substances  and,  if  kept  warm  and 
moist  and  out  of  the  sunshine,  will  grow  and  produce  mold 
over  the  surface  of  the  substance  upon  which  they  have 
settled. 

3.  Yeasts  are  visible  only  under  the  microscope.  They  are 
single-celled  organisms,  oval  in  shape.  They  reproduce  by 
budding,  producing  a  change  in  certain  organic  substances 
called  alcoholic  fermentation,  by  which  alcohol  and  carbon 
dioxide  are  formed. 

4.  Bacteria  are  visible  only  under  the  microscope.  They 
are  much  smaller  than  yeast  plants.  They  are  single-celled 
organisms,  round,  rod-shape,  or  spiral.  They  reproduce  by 
fission,  that  is,  by  dividing  in  the  middle,  producing  two 

50 


FOOD  PRESERVATION  51 

imlividuals,  or  by  spore  foriiKitioii.  Ikictcria  are  very 
abundant,  being  found  everywhere.  Some  arc^  disease- 
producing  ;    many  are  non-disease-producing. 

Most  organic  foods  are  injured  or  in  time  destroyed  by  the 
presence  in  them  and  growth  of  molds,  yeast,  and  bacteria. 
To  preserve  food  the  growth  of  these  organisms  must  be  pre- 
vented. Fresh  air  and  sunshine  are  nature's  disinfectants 
and  they  check  the  growth  of  germs  or  even  destroy  them ; 
hence  the  necessity  of  fresh  air  and  sunshine  in  all  parts  of  a 
house. 

Molds,  yeast,  and  bacteria  are  destroyed  by  heat  and  by 
certain  chemicals.  Their  growth  is  checked  by  low  tem- 
perature, by  the  removal  of  water,  by  the  aromatic  oils  of 
spices,  by  an  excess  of  sugar  or  salt,  by  the  presence  of 
smoke,  and  by  certain  acids.  While  such  chemicals  as  for- 
maldehyde, salicylic  acid,  benzoate  of  soda,  will  preserve 
foods  indefinitely  by  destroying  or  checking  the  growth  of 
germs,  their  presence  even  in  very  small  amounts  is  harmful 
to  the  body,  hence  their  use  as  food  preservatives  should  be 
forbidden  by  the  Pure  Food  Laws. 


Harmless  Methods  of  Food  Preservation 

1.  Canning  —  destruction  of  germs  by  heat  and  the  sub- 
sequent exclusion  of  germs. 

2.  Preserving  —  destruction  of   germs    by   heat  and  the 
preventing  of  their  growth  by  thick  sugar  syrup. 

3.  Pickling  —  prevention  of  growth  of  germs  by  acid  and 
spices. 

4.  Smoking  —  prevention  of  growth  of  germs  by  smoke. 

5.  Salting  —  prevention  of  growth  of  germs  by  presence  of 
salt. 


52  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

6.  Cold  Storage  —  prevention  of  growth  of  germs  by  tem- 
perature of  37°  F. 

7.  Drying  —  prevention  of  growth  of  germs  by  removing 
water. 

Harmful  Methods  of  Food  Preservation 

Use  of  formaldehyde,  salicylic  acid,  borax,  boric  acid,  ben- 
zoate  of  soda,  ''  canning  compounds,"  and  alcohol. 

Sterilization  and  Pasteurization.  —  Sterilization  is  the  com- 
plete destruction  of  bacteria.  When  a  thing  is  free  from 
bacteria  and  other  forms  of  life,  it  is  sterile,  no  matter  how 
the  condition  is  brought  about. 

The  purpose  of  pasteurization  is  to  sterilize  sufficiently  to 
make  a  food  safe  without  injuring  its  flavor  or  digestibility. 
Few  bacteria  can  live  in  a  temperature  above  157°  F.  Some 
bacteria  have  the  power  of  reproducing  by  the  forming  of 
spores  which  will  resist  such  heat  as  may  destroy  the  bacteria 
themselves.  Dry  heat  destroys  bacteria  with  certainty  only 
at  a  temperature  of  284°  F. 

Pasteurization  is  the  raising  of  a  substance  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  from  155°  F.  to  170°  F.  and  the  maintaining  of  this 
temperature  for  twenty  minutes,  when  the  substance  should 
be  cooled  rapidly ;  by  this  process  most  of  the  harmful  germs 
are  supposed  to  be  destroyed. 

Canning  and  Preserving.  —  The  purpose  of  canning  is  to 
destroy  by  heat  germs  already  present  in  the  food  and  to 
exclude  the  entrance  of  other  germs.  The  purpose  of  pre- 
serving is  to  destroy  by  heat  germs  already  present  and  to 
protect  the  food  by  means  of  a  thick  sugar  syrup. 

The  factors  most  essential  in  the  processes  of  canning  and 
preserving  are  (1)  the  complete  sterilization  of  the  food  to  be 


FOOD  PRESERVATION  53 

preserved,  (2)  the  complete  sterilization  of  the  cans  or  jars 
into  which  the  food  is  to  be  placed,  (3)  the  complete  sealing 
of  the  jars  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  germs.  Vegetables 
contain  more  spore-forming  bacteria  than  do  fruits,  hence 
are  more  difficult  to  preserve. 

Methods  of  Fruit  Preserving : 

1.  —  Prepare  fruit,  place  in  jars,  fill  the  jars  with  syrup, 
put  on  the  cover  lightly.  Set  the  jars  in  a  steamer  and 
cook  till  the  fruit  looks  clear  and  is  tender.  Fill  the  jars 
to  overflowing  with  the  contents  of  one  of  the  jars  and  seal 
securely. 

2.  —  Make  a  syrup  with  desired  amount  of  sugar  and 
water,  according  to  the  fruit.  Cook  the  fruit  in  the  syrup 
until  tender;  put  into  sterilized  jars,  filling  the  jars  to  over- 
flowing with  the  syrup.     Seal  securely. 

Juicy  fruits  require  little  or  no  water.  Strawberries  are 
better  when  no  water  is  added,  or  when  they  are  cooked  in  a 
very  heavy  syrup.  Large  hard  fruits,  such  as  pears,  quinces, 
etc.,  require  longer  cooking ;  before  being  placed  in  the  thick 
syrup,  they  should  be  cooked  in  a  thin  syrup  or  steamed  until 
nearly  tender. 

To  Sterilize  Jars : 

Method  1.  — Place  the  jars  or  glasses  in  a  kettle  of  cold 
water,  having  a  folded  cloth  or  layers  of  paper  in  the  bottom 
of  the  kettle  to  prevent  the  jars  from  coming  in  direct  con- 
tact with  the  bottom  of  the  kettle.  Heat  the  water  slowly 
to  the  boiling  point.  Remove  the  jars  and  fill  immediately 
with  fruit  and  syrup. 

Method  2.  —  Set  the  jars  in  a  steamer  and  steam  about 
fifteen  minutes.  A  large  steamer  may  be  improvised  by 
placing  a  rack  in  the  bottom  of  a  wash  boiler  and  setting  the 


54 


DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


jars  on  the  rack.  Do  not  wipe  the  inside  of  the  jars  with  a 
towel  as  germs  may  be  introduced  into  the  jars  by  this 
means.     Dip  rubber  rings  into  boihng  water. 

COST  OF  PRESERVED  FRUITS,  ETC. 


Cost  of 
Fruit  used 


Cost  of 
Sugar  used 


Total 
Cost 


No.  Cans 

FILLED 


Cost  per 
Can 


Market  Price 
of  Similar  Can 


Syrup  for  Canning  and  Preserving 

One-third  to  1  pound  of  sugar  for  every  pound  of  fruit. 
For  small  fruits  add  1  to  H  cups  water  for  every  pound  of  sugar. 
For  large  fruits  add  2  to  2|  cup^  water  for  every  pound  of  sugar. 
Boil  the  sugar  and  water  together  for  10  minutes  before  adding 
the  fruit. 

Canned  Tomatoes 

Cover  tomatoes  with  boiling  water,  remove  skins  and  hard 
stem  end;  slice  and  cook  twenty  minutes  or  until- soft.  Skim 
during  the  cooking.  Fill  sterilized  glass  jars  to  overflowing  and 
seal  securely. 


Canned  Tomatoes  for  Soup 

Wash  tomatoes,  remove  stem  ends,  but  do  not  peel ;  slice  and 
cook  until  soft.  Rub  through  a  wire  strainer  to  remove  seeds  and 
skin.  Boil  the  juice  and  pulp  again.  Fill  sterilized  jars  and  seal 
securely. 


FOOD   PRESERVATION  55 


Preserved  Peaches 


The  skins  may  be  removed  more  easily  from  ripe  peaches  if  boil- 
ing water  is  poured  over  them,  allowing  them  to  stand  a  few  minutes 
and  then  placing  them  in  cold  water.  Make  a  syrup  as  directed 
and  either  cook  the  peaches  in  it,  a  few  at  a  time,  or  place  peaches 
in  jars  and  pour  the  syrup  over  them,  finishing  process  according  to 
directions  given.  The  flavor  of  the  peaches  will  be  improved  if  a 
few  of  the  peach  stones  are  added  to  the  syrup. 

Pears,  plums,  etc.,  may  be  preserved  in  the  same  way.  Peel 
the  pears  with  a  silver  knife.  Do  not  remove  the  skins  from  plums, 
but  prick  them  with  a  large  needle  or  fork  to  prevent  skins  from 
bursting. 

Grape  Juice  (to  be  used  as  a  beverage) 

8  lb.  perfect  Concord  grapes,  —  wash  and  stem.  Add  1|  qt. 
water  and  boil  twenty  minutes.  Strain  through  a  double  cheese- 
cloth. To  every  quart  of  juice  add  |  c.  sugar.  Boil  ten  minutes, 
skim;  pour  into  sterihzed  jars  or  bottles,  and  seal  securely. 

Jelly.  —  Only  those  fruit  juices  which  contain  at  least 
one-half  per  cent  of  acid  and  one  per  cent  of  pectin  will  form 
a  jelly  when  cooked  with  sugar.  Almost  all  fruits  contain 
the  requisite  amount  of  pectin,  but  sweet  fruits,  such  as 
peaches,  pears,  blackberries,  contain  too  little  acid ;  for  this 
reason,  acid  must  be  added  in  order  to  make  them  jelly ;  an 
acid  fruit,  lemon  juice,  or  tartaric  acid  may  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  As  before  stated,  the  pectin  is  in  the  best  condi- 
tion for  jelly  making  when  the  fruits  are  underripe  or  just 
ripe. 

Fruits  should  not  be  overripe  ;  the  more  perfect  the  fruit, 
the  clearer  will  be  the  jelly.  Berries,  currants,  and  grapes 
require  no  water.  Apples  and  quinces  must  be  cooked  in 
water  before  straining. 


56  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

General  Directions  for  Jelly  Making.  —  Use  a  porcelain- 
lined  or  granite  kettle.  Drain  the  fruit  juice  through  a  jelly 
bag  made  of  cotton  flannel  or  double  thickness  of  cheese- 
cloth. Do  not  squeeze  the  bag,  but  let  the  juice  drip  for 
several  hours  or  over  night.  Measure  equal  quantities  of 
juice  and  sugar.  Boil  the  juice  ten  to  twenty  minutes ;  add 
the  heated  sugar  and  boil  five  minutes  or  until  it  forms  a 
jelly.  Pour  into  sterilized  glasses;  let  stand  twenty-four 
hours  and  cover  with  melted  paraffine.  Put  tin  covers  on 
the  glasses  or  cover  them  with  wrapping  paper  to  keep  out 
the  dust. 

Crab  Apple  Jelly 

Wash  apples,  cut  in  pieces,  but  do  not  pare  nor  remove  the  seeds. 
Cover  with  cold  water.  Boil  until  soft.  Strain  as  directed,  boil 
juice  twenty  minutes,  add  an  equal  volume  of  heated  sugar,  boil 
five  minutes  or  until  it  jeUies.  Finish  as  in  directions  for  jelly 
making. 

Grape  Jelly 

Select  grapes  that  are  not  fully  ripe,  wash,  and  remove  from 
stems.  Put  into  a  kettle,  mash  well,  and  cook  about  thirty  minutes. 
Strain.  Add  f  c.  hot  sugar  to  every  c.  juice,  and  proceed  as  in 
directions  for  jelly  making. 

Marmalade,  Etc. 

Plum  Conserve 

4  qt.  plums  3  oranges  and  1  lemon  chopped 

1^  lb.  sugar  1  lb.  raisins 

^  lb.  nuts  coarsely  chopped 

Remove  stones  from  the  plums,  add  the  other  ingredients  with 
the  exception  of  the  nuts.  Cook  until  it  becomes  thick ;  add  the 
nuts  and  cook  a  few  minutes  longer.  Put  in  glasses  and  seal  as 
directed. 


FOOD  PRESERVATION  57 

Pear  Ginger 

8  lb.  pears  4  lb.  sugar 

25  cent  jar  preserved  ginger  cut  fine 

Peel  the  pears  and  cut  them  fine;    add  a  little  water  and  cook 

until  they  soften;    add  the  sugar  and  the  ginger  with  the  juice. 

Cook  until  thick  like  a  marmalade.     Put  in  glasses  and  seal  as 

directed. 

Grape  Jam 

Wash  grapes,  remove  from  stems;  squeeze  the  pulp  into  a 
stewpan.  Cook  pulp  and  rub  through  a  strainer  to  remove  seeds. 
Add  the  grape  skins  to  pulp  and  f  lb.  sugar  to  every  pound  of 
fruit.  Cook  slowly  until  it  thickens.  Put  in  glasses  and  seal  as 
directed. 

Spiced  Grapes 

Wash  grapes  and  remove  seeds  as  above.  To  every  7  lb. 
grapes  (pulp  and  skins)  add  3  lb.  sugar,  1  pt.  vinegar,  ground 
spices  to  taste.  Boil  until  the  skins  are  tender  and  the  mixture 
thickens.     Put  in  glasses,  sealing  as  directed. 

Peach  Marmalade 

Peel  peaches  and  slice  fine.  Add  1  pt.  sugar  to  every  quart  of 
peaches.  Let  stand  three  or  four  hours ;  cook  quickly  twenty-five 
minutes.     Put  in  glasses  and  seal  as  directed. 

Pickles 

Sweet  Pickles 

7  lb.  fruit  3  c.  vinegar 

3 1  lb.  brown  sugar  |  c.  spic3    (whole   cinnamon,  cassia 

buds,  cloves,  and  allspice) 
Tie  spices  in  a  cheesecloth  bag,  boil  with  the  sugar  and  vinegar 
ten  minutes.     Add  the  fruit  and  cook  until  fruit  is  tender.     Put  in 
jars,  fill  with  the  syrup,  and  seal. 


58  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Small  Cucumber  Pickles 

Scrub  2  qt.  small  cucumbers.  Put  in  a  ]3owl  with  ^  c.  salt; 
cover  with  boihng  water,  and  let  stand  over  night.  Drain.  Put 
in  a  kettle  with  ^  pt.  small  onions,  ^  sweet  green  pepper  with  seeds 
removed,  1  c.  sugar,  and  I  c.  whole  spices  tied  in  a  bag ;  cover  with 
vinegar,  let  come  to  boihng  point,  but  do  not  boil.     Seal  while  hot. 

Chili  Sauce 

1  doz.  ripe  tomatoes  peeled  and  .  f  c.  brown  sugar 

cut  up  ■  2  tb.  salt 

4  good-sized  onions  chopped  fine  1  pt.  cider  vinegar 

3  cucumbers  chopped  fine    ^  1  tb.  mixed  ground  spices 

2  green  peppers  chopped  fine 

Boil  all  together  slowly  for  two  hours.  Put  into  jars  and  seal 
while  hot. 


I 


CHAPTER  VII 
SOUPS 

There  are  in  general  two  types  of  soup,  —  those  made 
with  meat  or  fish  stocks  and  those  made  with  milk  or  cream ; 
some  soups,  however,  contain  both  kinds  of  liquid. 

CREAM  SOUPS 

Cream  soups  are  prepared  like  a  thin  white  sauce,  to 
which  the  vegetable,  etc.,  is  added  after  being  mashed 
and  strained.  Soups  are  thickened  both  to  improve  the  con- 
sistency and  to  keep  the  vegetable  from  separating  from  the 
liquid. 

To  hind  or  thicken  soups.  —  Melt  the  required  butter,  add  the 
flour,  and  cook  until  bubbling  ceases.  Let  this  mixture  cool,  add 
some  of  the  hot  soup  to  make  it  thin  enough  to  pour,  then  stir 
this  into  the  remainder  of  the  hot  soup  and  cook  until  it  thickens 
and  is  smooth. 

Cream  Tomato  Soup  or  Mock  Bisque 

Scald  1  qt.  milk  in  double  boiler.  Bind  with  4  tb.  butter,  6  tb. 
flour.  Cook  10  minutes.  Add  2  ts.  salt,  |  ts.  pepper.  Cook  1  pt. 
tomatoes  until  soft.  Strain.  Reheat  and  add  I  ts.  soda.  Add  to 
thickened  milk  and  serve  immediately. 

Note  for  Students.  —  Why  is  soda  added  to  the  tomato  ? 
Why  do  you  not  cook  the  white  sauce  and  tomato  together? 

59 


60  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Cream  of  Celery  Soup 

3  c.  chopped  celery 
1  slice  onion 

Cook  together  in  1  pt.  water  three  quarters  to  one  hour.  Rub 
through  a  puree  strainer.  Add  water,  as  it  cooks  away,  to  make 
one  pint.  Add  3  c.  milk.  Bind  with  4  tb.  butter,  5  tb.  flour. 
Cook  10  minutes.     Season  with  1^  ts.  salt,  f  ts.  pepper. 

Add  f  ts.  beef  extract,  or  cook  the  celery  in  water  in  which 
chicken  or  veal  has  been  cooked. 

Cream  of  Potato  Soup 

3  small  potatoes,  boil  and  mash.  Cook  the  potatoes  until  a 
httle  overdone  and  the  soup  will  not  be  grainy.  Scald  1  qt.  milk 
with  2  slices  of  onion ;  add  to  the  mashed  potatoes  and  strain  into 
the  upper  part  double  boiler.  Bind  with  3  tb.  butter,  2  tb.  flour. 
Cook  10  minutes.  Add  1^  ts.  salt,  I  ts.  celery  salt,  |  ts.  pepper, 
few  grains  cayenne,  1  ts.  chopped  parsley. 

Note  to  Student.  —  Why  is  the  amount  of  flour  less  than  that 
used  in  other  cream  soups  ? 

Clear  Tomato  Soup 

1  qt.  tomatoes  |  bay  leaf 

1  pt.  stock  or  water  4  peppercorns 

1  small  onion  2  cloves 

Sprig  of  parsley 

Cook  together  ten  minutes  or  till  tomatoes  are  soft.  Strain. 
Bind  with 

3  tb.  butter  Add  2  ts.  salt 

3  tb.  cornstarch  Cook  ten  minutes 


SOUPS  61 

Cream  of  Spinach  Soup 

Trim  roots  and  wilted  leaves  from  2  qt.  spinach.  Wash  spinach 
well  and  cook  thirty  minutes  in  2  c.  water  with  2  slices  onion. 
Rub  through  puree  sieve.  Add  3  c.  milk.  Bind  with  4  tb. 
butter  and  5  tb.  flour.  Season  with  1  ts.  salt  and  a  speck  of  cay- 
enne pepper. 

Baked  Bean  Soup 

2  c.  baked  beans  2  c.  water 

2  shces  onion  2  c.  tomatoes 

Cook  all  ten  minutes,  press  through  a  strainer.  Bind  with  2  tb. 
butter,  3  tb.  flour.    Season  with  salt,  pepper,  celery  salt,  and  paprika. 

All  cream  soups  are  improved  if  a  little  whipped  cream  is 
added  just  before  they  are  served,  being  sure  that  soup  is 
very  hot. 

SOUPS  WITH  STOCK 

Stock  is  the  liquid  extract  of  meat  and  bone. 
Proteins  present  in  meat : 

1.  Albumen.  —  Soluble  in  fresh  and  slightly  salted  cold 
water.     Coagulates  with  heat.     Builds  body  tissues. 

2.  Globulin.  —  Soluble  in  slightly  salted  cold  water. 
Coagulates  with  heat.     Builds  body  tissues. 

3.  Extractives.  —  Give  flavor  to  the  meat.  Soluble  in  hot 
and  cold  water.  Do  not  coagulate  with  heat.  Do  not  build 
body  tissues. 

4.  Collagen  of  connective  tissues.  —  Forms  gelatin  when 
boiled  with  water.  Jellies  when  cold.  Does  not  build  body 
tissues,  but  is  a  '^  protein  sparer." 

Experiment  35.  —  a.  Cut  meat  in  small  pieces  and  soak  in 
cold,  shghtly  salted  water.     What  color  does  the  water  become? 


62  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

What  has  been  withdrawn  from  the  meat  into  the  water?  What 
effect  has  cold  water  upon  meat  ?     How  should  meat  be  washed  ? 

h.  Remove  meat  from  water  and  heat  the  water.  Note  tem- 
perature at  which  flakes  form.  Boil.  What  is  the  scum  which 
forms  ?  Why  has  it  formed  ?  What  is  the  cooking  temperature 
for  soups?  Should  the  scum  which  forms  in  the  early  stages  of 
soup  making  be  removed  in  making  (a)  a  highly  nutritious  soup, 
{h)  a  clear  soup  ?    Are  clear  soups  nutritious  ?     Why  ? 

Experiment  36.  —  Pour  boiling  water  on  mea^.  Let  stand  a 
few  minutes.  Cut  meat.  What  effect  did  the  boihng  water  have 
upon  the  surface  of  the  meat?  What  is  the  color  of  the  water? 
Does  boiling  water  draw  out  th6  juices  of  meat  ? 

Experiment  37.  —  Hold  a  piece  of  meat  directly  over  a  hot 
fire,  as  in  broiling.  Turn  often.  Place  meat  on  a  dish.  Cut  it. 
What  effect  did  high  temperature  of  fire  have  upon  the  meat  ?  Com- 
pare the  flavor  and  color  of  the  meat  with  boiled  meat.  What 
effect  does  high-temperature  cooking  have  upon  the  flavor  of  meat  ? 

Meat  is  cooked  in  water : 

a.  In  making  soup ;  all  of  the  nourishment  of  the  meat 
should  be  drawn  out  into  the  water. 

h.  In  stews ;  part  of  the  nourishment  should  be  left  in  the 
meat. 

c.  For  serving  meats  whole  ;  all  of  the  nourishment  should 
be  retained  in  the  meat. 

For  (a)  the  meat  should  be  cut  in  small  pieces,  put  on  the 
stove  in  cold,  slightly  salted  water,  and  simmered  gently  for 
five  or  six  hours. 

For  (6)  the  meat  should  be  cut  in  pieces  suitable  for 
serving,  covered  with  boiling  water,  and  then  simmered 
gently  for  two  or  three  hours,  the  salt  being  added  when 
meat  is  about  half  cooked. 

For  (c)  the  meat  should  be  left  whole,  be  plunged  into 
boiling  water,  allowed  to  boil  five  minutes  to  coagulate  the 


SOUPS  63 

protein  on  the  surface,  then  simmered  gently  until  tender, 
the  salt  being  added  when  it  is  about  half  cooked. 

Soup  Stock.  —  The  cheapest  and  toughest  cuts  of  meat 
may  be  used  in  making  soups.  The  hind  shin  of  beef  or 
the  rump  bone,  the  knuckle  of  veal,  the  neck  of  mutton, 
may  be  used.  Left-overs  of  meats  and  vegetables  may 
be  saved  and  added  to  the  stock,  and  the  trimmings  of 
meat  and  bone  sent  from  the  butcher's  may  be  used  for  the 
same  purpose.  The  soup  kettle  should  be  of  granite  or, 
if  of  iron,  it  should  be  very  smooth  or  porcelain-lined. 
The  cover  of  the  kettle  should  fit  closely  to  retain  the 
steam. 

The  scum  which  rises  on  the  soup  consists  of  the  albumen 
and  globulin  of  the  meat  and  should  not  be  removed.  The 
long-continued  action  of  hot  water  upon  the  collagen  of  the 
connective  tissues  will  change  it  to  gelatine  and  the  fibers 
and  bones  will  alone  be  removed  upon  straining.  The  stock 
should  simmer  gently  for  five  or  six  hours,  be  strained  through 
a  colander,  and  allowed  to  cool,  so  that  the  fat  may  come  to 
the  surface  and  form  a  cake,  which  should  be  removed  before 
the  stock  is  used.  In  clear  soups,  every  particle  of  fat  must 
be  removed. 

A  brown  stock  may  be  made  by  browning  about  one 
third  of  the  meat  and  vegetables  before  adding  them  to  the 
stock  kettle. 

About  two  thirds  of  the  meat  used  should  be  lean,  the 
other  third,  bone  and  fat. 

Do  not  wash  meat  by  putting  it  into  water  to  soak,  but 
wipe  thoroughly  with  a  damp  cloth  before  cutting. 

A  general  rule  for  stock :  To  every  pound  of  meat  and 
bone  allow  1  qt.  cold  water,  1  ts.  salt,  4  peppercorns,  4  cloves, 
I  ts.  mixed  herbs,  1  tb.  each  vegetable  cut  fine. 


64  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Stock 

2  lb.  shin  of  beef  2  ts.  salt 

2  qt.  cold  water  4  allspice 

6  cloves  1  sprig  parsley 

8  peppercorns  1  small  onion 

^  ssp.  celery  seed  ^  small  carrot 

^  ts.  mixed  herbs  (whole)  |  small  turnip 

Wipe,  and  cut  the  meat  into  small  pieces.  Put  into  the  cold 
water  with  the  vegetables  and  seasoning,  and  soak  ^  h.  before 
heating ;  heat  gradually  and  let  simmer  5  or  6  h.  Strain  and  cool 
quickly.     When  ready  for  use,  remove  all  fat ;  heat,  and  season  to 


taste. 


Brown  Soup  Stock 


4  lb.  shin  of  beef  6  cloves 

^  ts.  peppercorns  |  c.  each,  turnip,  carrot, 

^  bay  leaf  onion,  and  celery  cut 

4  ts.  salt  in  dice 

-    4  qt.  cold  water  2  sprigs  parsley 

Wipe  beef.  Cut  lean  meat  into  inch  cubes.  Brown  one  third 
of  meat  in  hot  frying  pan  in  the  marrow  from  bone.  Put  remainder 
of  meat  and  bone  in  soup  kettle  with  water  and  let  stand  ^  h. 
Add  browned  meat,  the  vegetables,  and  seasoning,  and  heat  gradu- 
ally. Cook  slowly  5  or  6  h.,  keeping  just  below  the  boiling  point; 
strain  and  cool ;  remove  fat. 


Tomato  Soup 

1  pt.  stewed  and  strained     1-  pt.  stock 

tomatoes  Salt  and  pepper  to  taste 

I  ts.  sugar 

Add  tomatoes  to  boiling  stock;  season,  and  serve  with  crou- 
tons. 


SOUPS  65 

Vegetable  Soup 

1  qt.  stock  I  c.  onion 

1  pt.  boiling  water  |  c.  peas 

I  carrot  ^  c.  celery 

^  turnip  ^  c.  tomato 

I  potato  1  tbsp.  rice 

Cut  vegetables  into  uniform  pieces  or  chop  fine.  Boil  carrot 
and  turnip,  celery,  onions,  and  rice  in  water  20  m. ;  add  other  vege- 
tables and  cook  till  tender.  Add  stock,  and  salt  and  pepper  to 
taste.     Boil  10  minutes  and  serve. 


Bouillon 

5  lb.  lean  beef  1-3  c.  each  carrot,  turnip, 

2  lb.  bone  onion,  celery 

4  qt.  cold  water  |  ts.  peppercorns 

1  tb.  salt 

Wipe,  and  cut  meat  into  inch  cubes.  Put  two  thirds  of  meat  in 
soup  kettle  with  bone  and  water,  and  soak  |  h.  Brown  remainder 
of  meat  in  marrow  from  bone,  put  into  the  soup  kettle,  heat  slowly 
and  simmer  5  h.  Add  seasoning  and  vegetables.  Cook  1  h,, 
strain  and  cool.  Remove  every  particle  of  fat  and  clear.  Serve 
in  cups  with  a  sUce  of  lemon. 


To  clear  Soup 

Allow  the  white  and  shell  of  1  egg  to  every  quart  of  stock,  season 
with  ^  ssp.  celery  seed,  salt  to  taste,  and  add  the  thinly  shaved  rind 
of  ^  lemon. 

Crush  the  shell,  beat  the  white  slightly,  and  add  all  to  cold 
stock.  Stir  constantly  till  boiling  point  is  reached.  Boil  2  m. 
Set  back  where  it  may  simmer  20  m.  Strain  through  double  thick- 
ness of  cheesecloth.     Reheat  and  serve. 


66  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

White  Soup  Stock 

3  lb.  knuckle  veal  1  large  stalk  of  celery 

1  lb.  lean  beef  |  ts.  peppercorns 

3  qt.  water  i  bay  leaf 

1  onion  2  sprigs  thyme 

6  slices  carrot  2  cloves 

Wipe,  and  cut  meat  into  small  pieces.  Break  the  bone  in  several 
places.  Put  into  a  soup  kettle  and  cover  with  cold  water.  Sim- 
mer gently  for  4  h.  Add  vegetables  and  seasoning  and  simmer  1  h. 
longer.     Strain;   when  cool,  remove  fat. 


,Corn  Soup 

1  pt.  grated  corn  or  kornlet  4  tb.  flour 

1  qt.  white  stock  or  water  1  ts.  chopped  onion 

1  pt.  milk  Salt  and  pepper 

3  tb.  butter  Beaten  yolks  1  or  2  eggs 

Cook  the  corn  and  onion  in  stock  or  water  20  m.  Rub  through 
a  sieve  and  add  milk.  When  boiling,  bind  with  the  flour  and  butter. 
Add  seasoning.  Just  before  serving  add  the  beaten  yolks  and  serve 
immediately. 

Cauliflower  Soup 


4  c.  hot  white  stock 

1  bay  leaf 

1  cauliflower 

I  c.  flour 

3  tb.  butter 

2  c.  milk 

1  slice  onion 

Salt 

1  stalk  celerj^ 

Pepper 

Soak  cauhflower,  head  down,  1  h.  in  cold  water.  Cook  in  boiling 
salted  water  20  m.  Reserve  a  quarter  of  the  flowerets,  and  rub 
remaining  cauliflower  through  sieve.  Cook  onion,  celery,  bay  leaf, 
in  butter  5  m.,  but  do  not  brown.  Remove  bay  leaf,  add  flour,  and 
stir  into  hot  stock  ;  add  cauliflower  and  milk.  Season,  strain,  add 
flowerets,  and  reheat. 


SOUPS  67 

Force  Meat  Balls  (to  serve  with  stock  soups) 

Chop  cold  cooked  meat  fine ;  season  highly  with  salt,  pepper, 
sweet  herb,  onion,  etc. ;  moisten  with  yolk  of  egg  and  a  little  stock 
or  water.  Mold  into  small  balls,  roll  in  flour,  and  brown  in  hot 
fat.  Serve  with  soup ;  or  make  larger  balls  and  serve  with  a  tomato 
sauce  as  a  meat  dish. 

Croutons 

Cut  stale  bread  in  ^  inch  slices  and  remove  the  crusts.  Butter 
the  slices  lightly  and  cut  them  into  ^  inch  cubes;  bake  them  till 
they  are  a  delicate  brown. 

Toast  Sticks  or  Rounds 

Cut  bread  into  sticks  or  rounds,  spread  these  with  butter,  and 
sprinkle  with  grated  cheese  ;  bake  until  the  cheese  is  melted.  Serve 
very  hot. 

Crackers 

Spread  lightly  with  butter  and  cook  in  the  oven  until  they  are 
crisp. 

Note.  —  Student  write  recipes  for  other  cream  soups,  compar- 
ing them  with  those  found  in  standard  cook  books. 


CHAPTER   VIII 
PROTEIN— EGGS 

Protein  holds  an  important  place  among  the  food  principles, 
for  it  is  the  only  one  which  supplies  the  nitrogenous  materials 
necessary  for  the  building  and  repair  of  the  tissues  of  the 
body.  As  the  tissues  of  the  body  contain  nitrogen,  foods 
must  be  supplied  which  contain  nitrogen  in  a  form  in  which 
the  body  can  use  it.  Protein  forms  the  basis  of  all  living 
cells,  being  an  essential  part  of  the  protoplasm,  a  jellylike 
content  of  the  cell.  Sugars  and  starches  contain  no  nitrogen 
and  for  this  reason  obviously  cannot  serve  the  important 
purpose  which  protein  does.  Without  protein  foods  the 
body  will  weaken  and  undergo  nitrogen  starvation,  or  a 
breaking  down  of  the  tissues. 

The  protein  molecules  are  very  complex,  containing  prob- 
ably many  atoms  each  of  the  various  elements  of  which 
they  are  composed.  While  something  is  known  of  the  ar- 
rangement of  these  atoms,  much  is  still  to  be  learned  and 
their  chemical  formulae  have  not  been  determined.  Besides 
their  important  functions  as  tissue  builders,  the  proteins 
serve  also  as  heat-giving  foods,  as  they  contain  carbon  and 
hydrogen.  Some  of  the  substances  into  which  they  are 
changed  during  digestion  are  capable  of  forming  fat  in  the 
body.  To  depend  chiefly  on  protein,  however,  for  fuel  and 
for  body  fat  is  undesirable  for  many  reasons,  one  of  which 
is  that  foods  rich  in  protein  are  almost  always  high  priced. 
Fortunately,  carbohydrates  and  fats  seem  to  act  to  some 

68 


PROTEIN  — EGGS  69 

extent  as  protein  sparers,  and  when  they  are  used  in  suffi- 
cient quantity,  they  prevent  undue  destruction  of  protein 
for  the  production  of  heat. 

Identification  Test  for  Protein.  —  Put  raw  white  of  egg  in  a 
saucer.  Cut  with  a  pair  of  scissors  until  you  can  take  up  a  spoon- 
fuL  Put  I  ts.  of  it  in  a  test  tube  with  a  httle  water,  add  a  few  drops 
of  nitric  acid  (HNO3).  A  white  precipitate  forms  which  when 
boiled  turns  yellow.  This  yellow  color  is  characteristic  of  protein. 
When  the  mixture  is  cool,  add  a  few  drops  of  ammonia  (NH4OH). 
An  orange-brown  color  will  result. 

Experiment  38.  —  Test  various  foods  to  detect  the  presence  of 
protein.     Tabulate  results. 

Experiment  39. —  Part  1.  Prepare  raw  white  of  egg  by  cutting 
with  scissors,  and  add  to  a  small  part  of  it  ten  volumes  of  water ; 
filter  through  filter  paper.  Test  the  filtrate  for  protein.  Is  pro- 
tein soluble  in  cold  water  ? 

Part  2.  Repeat,  using  boiling  water  with  white  of  egg.  Is  albu- 
men soluble  in  boiling  water  ?  In  cooking  meats  in  water,  when 
should  they  be  placed  in  cold  water  ?   in  boiling  water  ? 

Experiment  40.  —  Remove  the  residue  of  egg  white  left  in  the 
filter  paper  of  Part  1  of  the  previous  experiment,  and  put  it  in  a 
test  tube.  Add  a  weak  salt  solution;  mix  well;  filter.  Test 
filtrate  for  protein. 

Is  globuhn  soluble  in  weak  salt  solution?  When  should  you 
add  salt  to  water  in  cooking  meats  ? 

Experiment  41.  —  Effect  of  heat  upon  albumen  and  globulin. 

Put  half  the  white  of  an  egg  in  a  test  tube.  Put  a  thermometer 
in  the  tube  and  place  it  in  a  pan  of  cold  water,  having  water  deep 
enough  to  surround  the  egg;  heat  the  water  gradually.  Note 
temperature  when  the  first  signs  of  coagulation  are  seen  in  the  egg. 
At  180°  F.  remove  some  of  the  albumen ;  continue  heating  to  212° 
F.  Compare  the  consistency  of  albumen  cooked  at  180°  F.  and  212° 
F.     What  is  the  correct  temperature  for  "soft-cooked"  eggs? 

Experiment  42.  —  {a)  Boil  1  pt.  water,  place  two  eggs  in  it, 


70  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

remove  from  fire,  keeping  kettle  ciosely  covered  to  retain  heat.  At 
end  of  six  minutes,  remove  one  egg;  remove  the  other  at  the  end 
of  ten  minutes. 

(6)  Put  an  egg  in  boihng  water  and  let  boil  three  and  one-half 
minutes. 

Compare  the  consistency  of  the  three  eggs.  Is  there  any  dif- 
ference ?    What  is  the  best  method  for  cooking  eggs  soft  ? 

Experiment  43.  —  (a)  Cook  an  egg  in  boiling  water  for  seven  or 
eight  minutes. 

(6)  Cook  an  egg  in  water  just  below  the  boihng  point  for  twenty 
minutes  or  longer. 

Compare  (a)  and  (b).  Note  difference  in  consistency  of  yolks 
and  whites.  What  is  the  best  method  of  cooking  eggs  hard? 
What  effect  does  the  temperature  of  212°  F.  have  upon  pro- 
tein? 

Classification  of  Proteins.  —  All  proteins  contain  nitrogen, 
carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  sulphur ;  some  contain  also 
phosphorus  and  iron.  However,  there  are  many  forms  of 
protein,  all  possessing  widely  varied  chemical  and  physical 
properties.  By  such  experiments  as  those  that  have  been 
performed  and  others  much  more  complicated  and  extended, 
scientists  have  learned  enough  about  these  substances  to 
classify  them  as  follows  : 

I.    Simple  Proteins : 

A.  Albumen,  found  in  egg,  blood,  milk,  etc. 
Properties  :  (1)  Coagulates  with  heat 

(2)  Soluble  ii^L  water 

(3)  Soluble  in  weak  salt  solution 

(4)  Insoluble  in  strong  salt  solution 

B.  Globulin,  found  in  egg,  muscle,  blood,  milk,  etc. 
Properties  :  (1)  Coagulates  with  heat 

(2)  Insoluble  in  water 

(3)  Soluble  in  weak  salt  solution 

(4)  Insoluble  in  strong  salt  solution 


PROTEIN  — EGGS  71 

C.  Alcohol-Solublo  Protcnns 

(1)  Glutenin  and  gliadiri,  found  in  wheat,  which, 

when  mixed  with   water,   unite  to  form 
gluten 

(2)  Legumen  of  peas  and  beans 

D.  Albuminoids  or  proteins  found  in  skeleton  and  framework. 

Principal  form  is  collagen,  which  is  found  in  tho  white  fibers 
of  connective  tissue  and  which,  when  boiled  with  water, 
forms  gelatin 
Properties  :  (1)  Dissolve  in  hot  water 
(2)  Form  a  jelly  when  cold 

E.  Extractives 

In  the  animal  body  proteins  are  constantly  breaking  down 
into  simpler  substances,  some  of  which  contain  nitrogen. 
At  the  time  of  killing,  some  of  these  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances are  in  the  tissues ;  they  can  be  extracted  with 
water  and  for  this  reason  the  name  "  Extractives  "  has 
been  given  them.  As  a  human  food  they  serve  as  mild 
stimulants  and  also  as  flavoring  materials.  It  is  not 
thought,  however,  that  they  can  be  used  as  building 
stones.  If  an  animal  is  fed  on  a  diet  in  which  extractives 
are  the  only  nitrogenous  substances,  it  dies  of  what  is 
called  nitrogen  starvation. 

The  extractives  are  not  coagulated  by  heat ;  they  will,  there- 
fore, remain  in  solution  when  meat  juice  is  heated.  Not 
so,  however,  the  albumen  and  globuhn  of  meat  juices; 
they  are  coagulated  at  a  certain  temperature  and  rise  to 
the  surface  and  form  a  scum.  A  beef  broth,  therefore,  in 
which  the  proteins  have  been  coagulated  and  removed  by 
skimming  or  straining  is  wholly  lacking  in  tissue-forming 
substances ;  it  is  mildly  stimulating,  however,  i.e.  it  spurs 
on  the  various  processes  of  the  body  and  may  be  the 
means  of  supplying  water  in  a  very  acceptable  form. 

II.   Conjugated   Proteins.  —  Proteins    which  contain    some    other 
molecule  united  to  the  protein  molecule 


72 


DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


A.  Phospho-proteins.  —  Are  compounds  of  protein  with  a  phos- 

phorus-containing substance.  They  are  especially 
adapted  to  furnish  the  material  for  tissue  growth. 
They  are  present  in  the  casein  of  milk  and  vitellin  of 
egg  yolk. 

B.  For  other  forms  of  protein  see  '^  Chemistry  of  Food  and 

NutritioQ,"  H.  C.  Sherman. 


EGGS 


,' Embryo  or  c^erm  from 
I   which  chicken  develops 


Twisfeol  white  carols 
upon  which  fhe 
yolkrevolyes-" 


Shell- 


Air  spofce 


y--6hm  I  in  Ira 
fhe^hell 


Section  of  a  Hen's  Egg 


Composition  of  Edible  Portion  of  Eggs  —  {E.  C.  Sherman) 
Water,  73.7%;  Fat,  10.5%;    Protein,  14.8%;  Ash,  1.0%. 

Composition  of  Yolk  of  Egg 

Water,  50.9%;  Fat,  31.75%;  Protein,  16.2%;  Ash,  1.09%. 

Composition  of  White  of  Egg  —  {Hutchinson) 
Water,  85.7%;  Fat,  0.25%;  Protein,  12.6%;  Ash,  0.59%. 

Eggs  contain  all  the  elements  necessary  for  the  growth  of 
the  body,  as  from  the  egg  the  young  chick  is  formed.  They 
are  lacking,  however,  in  carbohydrates,  so  it  is  better  to  eat 
them  with  bread,  rice,  potato,  or  other  starchy  foods.     The 


PRO  TEIN  —  EGGS  73 

yolk  of  the  egg  forms  a  valuable  source  of  iron  and  phos- 
phorus for  the  body. 

The  edible  portion  of  newly  laid  eggs  almost  fills  the  shell, 
but  as  the  shells  are  porous  the  water  evaporates,  and  air, 
containing  decomposing  bacteria,  takes  its  place.  As  it  is  the 
presence  of  these  bacteria  which  causes  the  egg  to  spoil,  the 
principle  of  egg  preservation  is  to  prevent  the  evaporation 
of  water  by  filling  the  pores  of  the  shell.  This  is  accomplished 
by  placing  the  eggs  in  a  solution  of  water  glass.  A  fresh  egg, 
containing  more  water  than  a  stale  one,  will  sink  in  water. 

To  'preserve  eggs  in  water  glass  {sodium  silicate).  —  Boil  ten  to 
twelve  quarts  of  water,  rain  water  if  possible.  When  cold,  add  one 
quart  of  water  glass.  Place  clean,  strictly  fresh  eggs  in  crocks,  small 
ends  down,  and  cover  them  with  the  water  glass  mixture.  As  the 
eggs  will  keep  fresh  for  months,  they  may  be  preserved  when  the 
price  is  lowest. 

Price  of  eggs  :     .     .     .     .     January  ...     .     September 

.     .     .     .     April  ....     November 

When  eggs  are  beaten,  the  tenacity  of  the  albumen  causes 
them  to  entangle  air,  thus  increasing  their  bulk  many  times. 
In  a  cake  or  other  mixture  subjected  to  the  heat  of  the  oven, 
the  air  expands  and  lightens  the  mixture.  If  the  egg  is  to 
be  used  to  make  mixtures  light,  we  beat  the  egg  well.  For 
other  purposes,  to  enrich  or  thicken  mixtures,  for  example, 
there  is  no  object  in  beating  it  more  than  enough  to  break  it 
up  and  to  insure  its  even  distribution. 

The  loss  of  weight  when  eggs  are  boiled  is  due  to  elimina- 
tion of  water.  The  coagulation  is  a  rearrangement  of  the 
atoms  of  the  molecule,  but  there  is  no  change  in  composition. 

When  eggs  are  brought  into  the  house,  they  should  be 
washed  and  then  put  into  a  cool,  dark  place.  They  will  keep 
better  if  perfectly  clean,  and  it  is  a  convenience  to  have  the 
shells  ready  for  use  in  clearing  coffee. 


74  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Soft-cooked  Eggs 

Put  eggs  into  boiling  water  to  well  cover  them.  Remove  kettle 
from  stove  and  place  where  it  will  keep  warm.  Leave  the  eggs  in 
the  water  from  six  to  eight  minutes. 

Hard-cooked  Eggs 

Cook  eggs  in  water  just  below  the  boiling  point  for  twenty 
minutes.  The  yolks  will  then  be  dry  and  mealy  and  will  be  easily 
digested. 

Creamed  Eggs 

.  Cut  four  hard  cooked  eggs  in  halves  or  quarters  and  pour  over 
them  one  cup  white  sauce. 

Egg  Toast 

Add  the  chopped  whites  of  3  hard-cooked  eggs  to  1  c.  thin  white 
sauce  and  pour  over  three  slices  of  toast.  Rub  the  yolks  through  a 
strainer  over  the  whole.  Reheat  in  the  oven,  if  necessary.  Garnish 
with  parsley  and  serve. 

Poached  Eggs 

Have  a  shallow  pan  nearly  full  of  boiling  salted  water.  Reduce 
heat  until  the  water  is  motionless.  Break  the  eggs  into  a  saucer, 
one  by  one,  and  slip  into  the  hot  water.  When  a  film  has  formed 
over  the  yolks  and  the  white  is  firm,  take  up  with  a  skimmer  and 
place  on  pieces  of  toast  of  uniform  shape  and  size. 

Baked  Custard 

2  c.  milk  ■      i  c.  sugar 

2  or  3  eggs  Pinch  of  salt 

Nutmeg 

Beat  eggs  slightly,  and  add  to  them  the  sugar  and  salt.  Pour 
on  them  the  milk.     Strain    into  a  buttered   mold,  add   nutmeg. 


PROTEIN  — EGGS  75 

Set  mold  in  a  pan  of  hot  water.  Bake  in  a  slow  oven  till  firm  and 
until  a  knife  inserted  will  come  out  clean.  Uo  not  allow  the  water 
around  the  custard  to  boil,  as  egg  and  milk  combinations  must  cook 
at  a  low  temperature  or  they  will  separate  and  become  watery. 
Allow  2  eggs  for  cup  custards  and  3  if  baked  in  a  large  mold. 

General  Rules  for  Omelets. — -The  pan  for  an  omelet  should 
be  very  clean  and  smooth.  Allow  one  tablespoonful  of 
water  or  milk  to  each  egg  used.  For  creamy  omelets,  beat 
the  eggs  slightly ;  for  beaten  omelets,  beat  the  yolks  and 
whites  separately  until  very  light.  Chopped  meat,  chicken, 
vegetables,  cheese,  etc.,  may  be  spread  over  an  omelet  just 
before  folding. 


4  eggs 

1  ts.  salt 

4  tb.  milk  or  water 

\  ssp.  pepper 

Beat  eggs  slightly,  add  other  ingredients,  mix  well,  and  pour 
into  a  hot,  buttered  omelet  pan.  Lift  gently  with  a  fork  as  it  begins 
to  cook,  letting  the  uncooked  egg  run  under.  When  of  a  creamy 
consistency,  roll  and  turn  out. 

Ham  Omelet 

Make  the  same  as  creamy  omelet,  and  as  soon  as  it  begins  to 
thicken,  spread  with  3  tb.  finely  minced  ham.     Roll  and  serve. 
Veal  and  chicken  may  be  used  the  same  way. 

Beaten  Omelet 

Beat  yolks  of  two  eggs  till  lemon-colored  and  thick,  add  2  tb. 
milk,  1  ssp.  salt,  ^  ssp.  pepper,  fold  in  the  beaten  whites.  Pour 
immediately  into  hot,  buttered  omelet  pan,  let  brown  on  one  side 
slightly,  set  in  the  oven  to  dry  on  top  a  little,  fold,  and  turn  on 
to  hot  platter. 


76  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Potato  Omelet 

Chop  2  boiled  potatoes  fine,  brown  in  1  tb.  hot  butter,  sprinkle 
with  salt,  pepper,  and  chopped  parsley.  Keep  warm  while  you 
make  a  creamy  omelet.  When  the  omelet  is  partly  set,  spread 
potatoes  over  it,  roll,  and  serve. 

Spanish  Omelet 

3  tb.  chopped  bacon 

1  tb.  chopped  onions 

2  tb.  chopped  green  pepper 

5  button  mushrooms,  chopped 
1  c.  tomatoes 

Fry  bacon,  add  onion  and  pepper,  and  cook  till  light  brown. 
Add  tomatoes  and  cook  till  of  consistency  of  white  sauce.  Add 
mushrooms  and  salt  to  taste. 

Make  a  creamy  omelet  and  just  before  folding  spread  with  this 
mixture,  or  pour  around  a  beaten  omelet  after  it  is  on  the  platter. 


CHAPTER  IX 
COMPOSITION  AND  PREPARATION  OF  MEATS 

AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  MEATS 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  142,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 


Beef: 

Porterhouse  steak 

Sirloin  steak  . 

Ribs      ... 

Round  .     .     . 

Rump  .     .     . 

Flank  .  .  . 
Veal :  * 

Leg  .... 

Breast  .     .     . 

Leg  cutlets  . 
Mutton : 

Leg,  hind  .     . 

Loin  chops     . 

Flank  .  .  . 
Lamb : 

Breast  .     .     . 

Leg,  hind  .  . 
Pork: 

Ham  (fresh)  . 

Loin  chops     . 

Shoulder    .     . 

Ham  (smoked) 

Salt  pork  .     . 

Bacon  .     .     . 


Refuse 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

12.7 
12.8 

20.8 

7.2 

20.7 

10.2 

52.4 
54.0 
43.8 
60.7 
45.0 
54.0 

19.1 
16.5 
13.9 
19.0 
13.8 
17.0 

17.9 
16.1 
21.2 
12.8 
20.2 
19.0 



14.2 

21.3 

3.4 

60.1 
52.0 
68.3 

15.5 
15.4 
20.1 

7.9 
11.0 

7.5 

18.4 

16.0 

9.9 

51.2 
42.0 
39.0 

15.1 
13.5 
13.8 

14.7 
28.3 
36.9 

19.1 
17.4 

45.5 
52.9 

15.4 
15.9 

19.1 
13.6 

10.7 
19.7 
12.4 
13.6 

48.0 
41.8 
44.9 
34.8 
7.9 
17.4 

13.5 
13.4 
12.0 
14.2 
1.9 
9.1 

25.9 
24.2 
29.8 
33.4 
86.2 
62.2 

7.7 

Ash 


Per  ct. 
0.8 

0.9 
0.7 
1.0 
0.7 

0.7 

0.9 
0.8 
1.0 

0.8 
0.7 
0.6 

0.8 
0.9 

0.8 
0.8 
0.7 
4.2 
3.9 
4.1 


77 


78  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Structure  of  Meat.  —  Experiment  44.  —  Pick  apart  with 
needles  some  of  the  fibers  of  uncooked  meat.  Examine  fibers  under 
a  microscope.  Make  drawings,  noting  the  stripes  (stria?)  on  fibers. 
Describe  fibers  of  meat. 

The  fibers  or  tubes  are  held  together  in  bundles  by  means 
of  connective  tissues;  these  connective  tissues  consist  of 
collagen,  which  is  converted  into  gelatine  by  boiling  in  water. 
Thus,  in  cooking,  the  connective  tissues  are  changed  and  the 
meat  becomes  more  tender.  The  harder  and  tougher  the 
connective  tissues  of  the  meat,  the  longer  the  time  which 
will  be  required  in  cooking  to  change  them  to  gelatine.  In 
tender  meats  the  collagen  is  changed  by  the  steam  formed 
from  the  juices  of  the  meat  in  the  processes  of  boiling  and 
baking,  but  a  large  amount  of  water  must  be  added  to  very 
tough  meats  to  bring  about  this  conversion.  Hence  tough 
meats  must  be  cooked  for  a  long  time  in  a  liberal  amount  of 
water  and  the  temperature  be  kept  just  below  the  boiling 
point,  in  order  that  the  protein  may  not  be  toughened. 

Tender  Meat.  —  Muscles  which  are  least  used  by  the  ani- 
mal are  the  most  tender,  as  those  of  the  tenderloin,  loin,  and 
ribs.  These  command  the  highest  market  prices.  The  tube 
walls  of  the  muscles  are  thin  and  delicate  and  there  is  little 
connective  tissue.  The  tougher  cuts  of  meat  are  equally 
nutritious  and  are  much  cheaper,  and  may  be  made  into  very 
palatable  dishes. 

Beef.  —  The  best  beef  is  obtained  from  steers,  four  to  six 
years  old,  which  are  raised  in  the  West  and  shipped  alive  to 
Chicago  or  some  other  packing  center.  After  slaughtering, 
the  animal  is  dressed  and  divided  into  quarters,  which  are 
placed  at  once  in  cold  storage  in  "order  that  they  may  cool 
quickly,  for  this  improves  their  quality.  From  the  cold 
storage  rooms  the  beef  is  shipped  in  refrigerator  cars  to 


COMPOSITION   AND   PREPARATION   OF   MEATS      79 

different  parts  of  the  country.  Beef  should  hang  from  two 
to  four  weeks  that  it  may  become  tender,  but  is  often  kept 
a  much  longer  time  without  deterioration. 


BEEF 
Diagram  Showing  Bones  and  the  Various  Market  Cuts  (Williams  and  Fisher) 


Names  of  Cuts 
1.   Sirloin. 


2.   Porterhouse. 


3.  Rump. 

4.  Round. 

5.  Top  sirloin. 

6.  First  prime  ribs. 

7.  Second  cut  ribs. 

8.  Chuck  ribs. 

9.  Neck. 

10.  Brisket. 

11.  Cross  rib. 

12.  Plate. 

13.  Navel. 

14.  Flank. 

15.  Shoulder. 

16.  Shin. 


Food  Uses 

Steaks. 

(a)  Hip  bone  sirloin,  best  sirloin  steak. 

(b)  Flat  bone  sirloin,  second  best  sirloin. 

(c)  Round  bone  sirloin,  poorest  sirloin. 
Steaks. 

(d)  Club  steak. 

(e)  Tenderloin. 
Corning. 

(f)  Best  corning  piece. 
Steaks  and  made  dishes. 
Pot  roast  and  steaks. 
Best  roasts. 

Roasts. 

Poorer  roasts  and  steaks. 

Beef  tea,  stews,  or  boiling. 

Corning. 

Pot  roast. 

Corning. 

Corning. 

Stews  or  boiling. 

Soup. 

Soup. 


80 


DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 
Points  to  Note  in  Judging  Beef 


1.  It  should  be  a  bright  red  color  after  it  has  been  cut  a 
short  time. 

2.  It  should  be  well  marbled  with  yellowish  fat. 

3.  It  should  have  a  thick  layer  of  fat  overlying  the  muscles. 

4.  It  should  be  firm  to  the  touch. 

5.  It  should  be  free  from  disagreeable  odor. 


MARKET  CUTS   OF  BEEF 

Photographs  used  by  permission  of  Teachers  College,  ColumMa  University 


First  cut  Prime  Ribs 


Second  cut  Prime  Ribs 


Chuck  Ribs 


Blade  Ribs 


COMPOSITION  AND   PREPARATION  OF   MEATS     81 


Porterhouse  Steak 


Small  Porterhouse  and  Club  Steak 


Flat-bone  Sirloin 


Hip  Sirloin 


Wf 

H 

■ 

i^H 

o 

Wmm^ 

WM 

B 

^1^1 

1 

M 

1 

m 

r^MS 

M 

Ifl 

w 

W^^^^^ 

"S^R-^i,  '^^ 

1.  Chuck  steak 
G 


^.  Skirt  Steak 


3.  Flank  Steak 


82 


DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 


Round 


Round  bone  Sirloin 


VEAL 
Diagram  Showing  Bones  and  the  Various  Market  Cuts  (Williams  and  Fisher) 


Names  of  Cuts 


1.   Loin. 


2.  Leg. 

3.  Knuckle. 

4.  Ribs. 

.5.   Shoulder.  ^ 

6.  Neck. 

7.  Breast. 

8.  Sweetbreads. 

(a)  Thymus  gland  in  throat. 

(b)  Pancreas. 


Food  Uses  ' 
Roast  and  Chops. 

(a)  Best  Chops. 

(b)  Poorer  Chops. 
Roast  and  Steaks. 
Soup. 

Chops. 

Stuffed  and  Roasted. 

Stew. 

Roast,  Stew. 


COMPOSITION  AND   PREPARATION  OF   MEATS     83 

Veal.  —  Veal  is  the  inoc'it  obtaiiKnl  from  th(^  calf.  Tlie 
flesh  should  be  pink,  and  the  fat  white.  If  the  flesh  is  white, 
the  animal  has  been  bled  before  being  killed,  or  is  too  young 
to  be  fit  for  food.  Veal  may  be  obtained  throughout  the 
year,  but  is  in  season  in  the  spring. 

Side  of  Veal 


1.  Neck.  3.   Shoulder.  ^.   Breast.  7.   Loin.  9.   Leg. 

2.  Chuck.  4.  Fore  Shank.  6.   Ribs.  8.   Flank.  10.   Hind  Shank. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  34,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture 

Veal  should  be  thoroughly  cooked  and  highly  seasoned. 
Being  deficient  in  fat,  pork  or  butter  should  be  used  in  the 
cooking.  Veal  is  divided  into  fore  and  hind  quarters.  The 
fore  quarter  is  divided  into  the  breast,  shoulder,  ribs,  and 
neck ;  the  hind  quarter  into  the  loin,  leg,  and  knuckle.  Cut- 
lets and  fillets  are  taken  from  the  thick  part  of  the  leg,  cor- 
responding to  the  round  of  beef. 


84 


DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


Mutton  and  Lamb.  —  Mutton  is  the  name  applied  to  the 
meat  of  sheep.  The  best  mutton  comes  from  a  heavy  animal 
about  three  years  old.     The  flesh  should  be  of  a  bright  red, 

MUTTON  AND   LAMB 
Diagram  Showing  Bones  and  Various  Market  Cuts  (Williams  and  Fisher) 


Names 

OF  Cuts 

Food  Uses 

•1.   Loin. 

Chops,     (a)  Best  chops, 
(b)  Poorer  chops. 

2.   Leg. 

Roast  or  boiled  whole  and  steaks 

3.   Ribs. 

Chops,     (c)    Best  chops. 

(d)  Poorer  chops. 

4.   Shoulder. 

Stuffed  and  roasted. 

5.   Breast. 

Stew. 

and  the  fat  hard  and  white.  The  meat  should  hang  from 
two  to  three  weeks  to  be  in  the  best  condition.  The  strong 
flavor  of  mutton  may  be  lessened  by  removing  the  pink 
skin  and  trimming  off  the  superfluous  fat.  Mutton  ranks 
with  beef  in  nutritive  qualities. 


COMPOSITION  AND   PREPARATION   OF   MEATS     85 

Lamb  is  the  name  applied  to  the  meat  of  lambs.  When 
killed  from  six  weeks  to  three  months  old,  it  is  known  as 
spring  lamb,  and  may  be  procured  as  early  as  February,  but 

Side  of  Mutton 


1.  Neck. 

2.  Chuck. 

3.  Shovilder. 


4.  Breast. 

5.  Loin  and  Ribs. 

6.  Leg. 


Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  34,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture 


is  scarce  till  March.  Lamb  may  be  eaten  soon  after  the 
animal  is  killed  and  dressed.  The  bones  of  lamb  are  pink, 
while  those  of  mutton  are  white.  Lamb  is  preferred  well 
done ;  mutton  is  often  eaten  rare. 


86  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

Lamb  and  mutton  are  divided  into  two  parts  by  cutting 
through  the  backbone,  then  subdivided  into  the  hind  and 
fore  quarter.  The  ribs  and  loins  are  used  for  chops  and 
roasts.  The  leg  is  sold  whole  for  boiling  or  roasting.  The 
breast  is  generally  used  for  stews  and  the  neck  for  broth. 


Makket  Cuts  of 

Lamb  and  M 

CTTTON 

1 

H 

■ 

1 

I 

li 

^^r 

7 

8 

n^ 

'  "dV 

^^w^ 

^^J 

||Qfe| 

^H 

■■--I 

^^w^ 

^I^Mm 

J^P-I 

^^8 

^^Im'^"*^ 

%, 

1  and  2.  Rib  chops,  Frenched,  5  and  6.   Rib  chops. 

3  and  4.   Loin  chops.  7.  Blade  shoulder  chop. 

8.    Round-bone  shoulder  chop. 

Pork.  —  Pork  is  the  meat  of  the  hog.  It  contains  more 
fat  than  that  of  any  other  animal.  The  lean  should  be  fine- 
grained and  of  a  pale  red  color,  the  fat  white,  and  the  skin 
clear  and  smooth.  Reject  the  meat  if  the  fat  is  a  yellowish 
white  and  full  of  small  kernels,  and  the  flesh  soft.  The  hind 
legs  are  salted  and  sjnoked  and  are  called  ham.  Sugar-cured 
hams  are  the  best.  The  shoulders  are  also  salted  and 
smoked  and  sold  cheaper  as  ''  picnic  hams."  The  ribs  and 
loin  are  used  for  chops  and  roasts.     The  flank,  which  lies 


COMPOSITION  AND   PREPARATION  OF   MEATS     87 


jii.st  below  tli(^  ribs,  is  salted  mikI  smoked  and  called  bacon. 
The  best  salt  pork  eomes  from  the  back  on  either  side  of 
the  backbone.  The  solid  fat  which  lies  inside  the  flank  is 
known  as  leaf  lard. 

PORK 
Diagram  Showing  Bones  and  Various  Market  Cuts  (Williams  and  Fisher) 


Names  of  Cuts 

Food  Uses 

1. 

Loin. 

Chops  or  roast. 

2. 

Ribs. 

Chops  or  roast. 

3. 

Ham. 

Boiled  or  sliced  and  broiled,  etc. 

4. 

Shoulder  or  picnic  ham. 

Poorer  cut  of  ham. 

5. 

Breast. 

Salt  pork  or  bacon. 

6. 

Clear  back  fat. 

Salt  pork. 

7. 

Jowl. 

Head  cheese,  etc. 

8. 

Pigs  feet. 

Pickled. 

The  tenderloins,  of  which  there  are  two,  lie  under  the 
backbone  and  extend  from  the  ribs  under  the  loin.  Pork 
should  be  thoroughly  cooked  to  be  wholesome.  It  should 
not  be  eaten  except  in  cold  weather  and  never  by  children 
or  people  of  weak  digestion. 

Note.  —  Students  obtain  prices  of  the  various  cuts  of  meat  and 
tabulate  them  to  show, 

(1)  Prices  procured  by  self,  from  "  family"  butcher. 

(2)  Highest  prices  procured  by  any  member  of  class. 

(3)  Lowest  prices  procured  by  any  member  of  class. 

Each  class  should  visit  a  local  meat  market  to  inspect  meat. 


88 


DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


General  Methods  of  Cooking  Meats :  1.  Application  of 
intense  heat  to  keep  in  the  juices  and  develop  flavor.  This 
is  suitable  for  tender  meats  only.     Broiling,  roasting. 


Side  of  Pork 


1. 

Head. 

5.   Breast. 

2. 

Shoulder  or  Picnic  ham.    ' 

6.   Ham. 

3. 

Back  fat. 

7.   Ribs. 

4. 

Middle  cut. 

8.   Loin. 

2.  Cooking  in  water  at  low  temperature.  This  is  suitable 
for  tough  meats,  bone,  gristle,  etc.     Soups,  stews. 

3.  Browning  or 'searing  the  meat  with  high  temperature 
to  develop  flavor,  and  then  cooking  slowly  in  water  to  soften 
the  fibers.  This  is  suitable  for  meats  that  are  neither  tender 
nor  very  tough.     Pot  roasts,  braising,  casserole,  etc. 


COMPOSITION   AND   PREPARATION   OF   MEATS      89 

Stewing.  —  Stewing  is  a  form  of  boiling  or  cooking  for  a 
long  time,  in  a  small  amount  of  water,  at  a  low  temperature. 
The  long-continued  action  of  gentle  heat  will  soften  the 
coarsest  fibers  and  connective  tissue  of  meats,  and  thus  the 
cheapest  cuts  of  meat  may  be  made  palatable. 

Remnants  of  meat  may  be  seasoned  in  various  ways, 
and  thus  be  made  savory  and  attractive. 

Stews  are  called  by  various  names,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  ingredients,  such  as  ragout,  haricot,  salmi,  chowder, 
etc. 

Braising  is  a  form  of  stewing  in  a  covered  pan  in  an  oven. 

Beef  Stew 

2  lb.  beef  4  small  potatoes 

1  onion  2  ts.  salt 

I  c.  carrot  and  turnip  1  ssp.  pepper 

diced  Hot  water  to  cover 

Wipe  the  meat,  remove  from  bone,  and  cut  in  2-inch  pieces. 
Sprinkle  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  dredge  with  flour.  Melt  some 
of  the  fat  in  a  frying  pan,  add  meat  and  the  onion  sliced,  stir  con- 
stantly that  the  surface  may  be  quickly  seared.  Put  into  a 
kettle ;  rinse  the  frying  pan  with  hot  water  that  none  of  the  goodness 
may  be  lost.  Add  remaining  bone  and  fat,  cover  with  boiling  water 
and  boil  5  m.,  then  simmer  until  the  meat  is  tender,  about  3 
hours.  Add  carrot  and  turnip  the  last  hour.  Parboil  potatoes 
and  add  to  stew  20  m.  before  it  is  done.  Remove  large  bones  and 
fat,  and  thicken  the  stew  with  2  tb.  flour  wet  in  cold  water.  Dump- 
lings may  be  added  10  m.  before  the  stew  is  finished.  Serve  on  a 
warm  platter. 

Dumplings 

1  pt.  flour  4  ts.  baking  powder 

^  ts.  salt  About  1  scant  c.  milk 

Sift  the  dry  ingredients,  stir  in  the  milk  slowly,  mixing  with  a 
knife  till  a  soft  dough  is  formed.     Dip  a  spoon  into  the  boiling  stew, 


90  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

tlicn  take  up  a  spoonful  of  dumi^ling  and  drop  into  the  stew,  letting 
it  rest  on  the  meat  and  potatoes.  Cover  closely  and  steam  10  m. 
without  uncovering.  Do  not  let  the  stew  stop  boiling  after  the 
dumplings  are  added.     Serve  immediately. 

Veal  Stew 

The  breast,  neck,  and  knuckle  of  veal  may  be  used  for  stew.  Cut 
2  lb.  of  veal  in  small  pieces,  remove  all  fine  bone.  Cover  meat 
with  boiling  water,  skim  as  it  begins  to  boil.  Add  2  small  onions, 
2  ts.  salt,  1  ssp.  pepper.  Simmer  till  tender,  about  3  hours.  Cut 
4  small  potatoes  in  halves,  parboil  them  5  m.,  add  to  the  stew. 
Thicken  with  2  tb.  flour  wet  in  cold  water,  add  1  c.  cream  or  milk, 
and  more  seasoning  if  necessary. 

Dumphngs  may  be  added. 

Irish  Stew 

3  lb.  neck  of  mutton  4  potatoes,  cut  in  dice 

4  onions  3  pt.  hot  water 

Salt  and  pepper 
Cut  meat  into  pieces  about  1  in.  square,  cover  with  the  boiling 
water,  add  shced  onions,  2  ts.  salt,  and  simmer  gently  3  h.    About  15 
m.  before  the  stew  is  done  add  potatoes.     Season,  and  serve  when 
potatoes  are  tender.     Dumplings  may  be  added. 

Braising,  Pot  Roasts,  etc.  —  Braising  is  a  form  of  stewing 
in  the  oven.  Pot  roasting  is  cooking  in  a  kettle  on  top  of 
the  stove,  using  only  a  small  amount  of  water.  The  less 
tender  cuts  of  meat  may  be"  cooked  by  either  method.  The 
meat  is  browned  first  to  improve  the  flavor  and  is  then 
cooked  slowly  in  a  small  amount  of  water,  in  a  closely  covered 
kettle  or  pan,  until  tender. 

Braised  Beef 

Sprinkle  |  c.  each  salt  pork,  carrot,  onion,  and  celery^  cut  in 
dice,  in  a  covered  dripping  pan,  and  place  5  lb.  beef  round,  rump,  or 


COMPOSITION   AND   PREPARATION    OF   MEATS     91 

shoulder,  on  them.  Add  1  pt.  stock  or  water,  |  bay  leaf,  piece  of 
red  pepper  or  6  peppercorns,  3  cloves.  Dredge  meat  with  flour. 
Let  brown  in  hot  oven.  Spread  a  few  more  of  the  vegetable  cubes  on 
top,  add  2  ts.  salt.  Cover  closely  and  cook  in  oven  very  slowly  4  or  5 
hours.  Put  meat  on  a  platter,  thicken  the  gravy,  and  serve  with  the 
meat.     1  cup  tomato  may  be  added  when  meat  is  half  done. 


Pot  Roast 

Four  to  six  lb.  from  the  rump,  round,  or  shoulder  of  beef. 
Brown  the  cut  sides  in  a  hot  kettle  in  some  fat  from  the  beef,  add 
1  c.  hot  water,  season  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  place  on  the  stove, 
where  it  will  keep  just  below  the  boiling  point.  Do  not  let  the 
water  cook  entirely  away,  but  add  only  enough  to  keep  the  meat 
from  burning.  Cover  closely  and  cook  till  very  tender,  but  do  not 
let  it  break.  Serve  hot  or  cold.  When  cold  it  may  be  cut  in  quarter 
inch  slices  and  sauteed  in  hot  butter. 

Roasting.  —  Roasting  is  the  process  of  cooking  by  the 
radiant  heat  of  an  open  fire.  It  is  seldom  used  now  as  a 
method  of  cookery,  as  few  kitchens  are  supplied  with  the 
necessary  apparatus.  Roasting  has  been  superseded  by 
baking  in  an  oven,  although  we  still  retain  the  name.  Tender 
meats  are  most  suitable  for  roasting.  The  larger  the  piece 
of  meat,  the  less  the  sUrface  in  proportion  to  the  weight; 
consequently,  evaporation  goes  on  less  rapidly  in  a  large 
piece,  and  it  is  more  likely  to  remain  juicy  than  a  small  one. 

The  meat  should  be  placed  in  the  oven  without  adding 
any  water.  As  it  begins  to  brown,  baste  it  with  the  hot  fat 
that  has  melted  out  of  the  roast  into  the  pan.  Add  enough 
boiling  water  from  time  to  time  to  just  cover  the  bottom  of 
the  pan  to  assist  in  basting  and  to  prevent  burning.  The 
salt  and  pepper  should  be  added  when  the  surface  is  well 
seared  over  by  heat. 


92  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Time-Table   for  Roasting 

Beef Allow  15  minutes  to  each  Ibc 

Mutton ■   .  Allow  20  minutes  to  each  lb. 

Veal Allow  30  minutes  to  each  lb. 

Pork Allow  30  minutes  to  each  lb. 

4  lb.  chicken Requires  about  2  hours. 

2|  to  3  lb.  fish .     .  Requires  about  1  hour. 

Roast  Beef 

Wipe  meat  with  wet  cloth,  place  in  a  dripping  pan  just  large 
enough  to  hold  it  easily.     Roast  as  in  directions  given. 

Roast  Beef  Gravy  (Brown  Sauce) 

Pour  off  all  the  fat  from  the  dripping  pan  in  which  beef  has 
been  roasted,  with  the  exception  of  about  4  tb.  Add  5  tb.  flour 
and  stir  till  brown.  Add  2  c.  hot  water.  Cook  five  minutes  or 
till  thick  and  smooth.     Season  with  salt  and  pepper. 

Yorkshire  Pudding 

1  c.  milk  1  or  2  eggs 

1  c.  flour  I  ts.  salt 

Mix  salt  and  flour.  Add  milk  gradually  to  form  a  smooth  paste. 
Then  add  eggs  beaten  very  light.  Cover  bottom  of  a  dripping  pan 
with  some  of  the  beef  fat  from  the  roast.  Pour  in  the  mixture 
one  half  inch  deep.  When  well  risen,  baste  with  the  fat  from  the 
roast.  Bake  30  minutes.  Cut  in  squares  for  serving.  It  may  be 
baked  in  hissing-hot  gem  pans. 

Roast  Veal 

The  leg,  the  thickest  part  of  the  leg  or  round,  the  loin,  and  ribs 
are  used  for  roasting.  When  the  leg  is  used,  have  it  boned  at  the 
market.  Wipe  meat,  sprinkle  with  salt  and  pepper,  stuff,  and  tie 
into  shape.  Place  in  dripping  pan,  dredge  with  flour  and  place 
strips  of  salt  pork  around  it.  Bake  30  minutes  to  the  pound,  bast- 
ing every  15  minutes  with  the  fat  in  the  pan,  and  boiling  water. 
Serve  with  brown  gravy  made  as  for  roast  beef. 


COMPOSITION    AND   PREPARATION   OF   MEATS     93 

Roast  Mutton 

Trim  off  pink  skin  and  sui)crfluous  fat.  Wipe  the  meat,  sprinkle 
with  salt  and  pepper,  dredge  with  flour.  Put  in  a  hot  oven  and 
baste  often,  using  a  little  hot  water.  Roast  20  minutes  to  the 
pound.     Make  a  gravy  in  the  pan,  as  for  roast  beef. 

Broiling.  —  Broiling  is  derived  from  the  French  word 
"  brtiler,"  meaning  to  burn.  It  is  cooking  directly  over  a 
fire,  and  is  the  hottest  form  of  cooking.  Only  the  most 
tender  portions  of  meat  and  fish  are  suitable  for  broiling. 
The  intense  heat  sears  or  coagulates  the  albumen  on  the 
outside  of  the  meat  and  forms  a  coating  which  retains  the 
juices  of  the  meat.  The  secret  of  success  in  broiling  is  fre- 
quent turning,  for  by  this  means  the  meat  is  prevented  from 
losing  its  juices,  and  also  from  burning.  The  free  action  of 
the  air  around  the  article  cooking,  combined  with  the  intense 
heat,  gives  a  flavor  that  cannot  otherwise  be  obtained. 

If  the  fire  is  not  suitable  for  broiling,  the  next  best  process 
is  pan  broiling  or  cooking  in  a  hissing  hot  frying  pan,  with- 
out fat.  Lay  the  meat  on  the  hot  pan,  sear  quickly  on  one 
side,  turn  (without  sticking  a  knife  or  fork  into  it,  thereby 
causing  the  juices  to  escape)  and  brown  the  other  side. 
Turn  often  during  the  cooking.  This  is  not  frying  if  properly 
done,  the  frying  pan,  as  commonly  used,  being  the  abomi- 
nation of  the  American  kitchen. 


Time-Table   for  Broiling 

Steak,  one  inch  thick 4  to    6  m. 

Steak,  one  and  one  half  inch  thick 6  to  10  m. 

Small,  thin  fish 5  to    8  m. 

Thick  fish 12  to  15  m. 

Chicken 20  m. 


94  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

Tlie  best  cuts  for  broiling  are  porterhouse,  sirloin,  cross 
cut  of  rump  steak,  and  second  and  third  cuts  from  top  of 
round,  of  tender  meat.  The  flank  end  of  porterhouse  may 
be  removed  before  broiling  and  used  in  the  soup  kettle  to 
prevent  waste  in  broihng. 

Broiled  Steak 

Wipe  the  meat  carefully  with  a  cloth  wet  in  cold  water  and  trim 
off  superfluous  fat.  Rub  the  wires  of  the  broiler  with  the  fat  and 
lay  the  steak  in  the  broiler,  having  the  thickest  part  in  the  center 
and  the  fat  near  the  handle.  Broil  over  a  clear  fire,  having  the 
chimney  damper  open,  turning  every  ten  seconds  for  the  first  min- 
ute, or  until  it  is  well  seared.  Hold  the  broiler  farther  from  the  fire 
and  turn  occasionally  until  it  is  cooked.  Place  on  a  warm  platter, 
sprinkle  with  salt  and  pepper  and  bits  of  butter  ;  set  in  the  oven  a 
moment  to  melt  the  butter.  Or,  omit  seasoning  and  butter,  and 
spread  with  lemon  butter,  or  pour  a  brown  mushroom  sauce  around 
it. 

To  hroil  ivith  gas.  —  Heat  the  broiling  oven.  -Lay  the 
meat  on  the  rack  and  put  near  the  flame  at  first.  Brown 
both  sides,  then  lower  the  gas  flame,  or  put  the  pan  farther 
away  from  the  flame,  thus  cooking  more  slowly  until  meat 
is  done.  Turn  three  or  four  times  during  the  cooking.  Put 
on  a  warm  platter  and  season  as  above. 

To  pan  hroil.  —  Heat  a  heavy  iron  pan  until  a  drop  of 
water  will  rebound  in  balls  from  it.  Lay  the  steak  or  chops 
directly  on  the  pan  without  fat.  Turn  often.  Reduce  heat 
and  continue  cooking  until  done.  Place  on  a  warm  platter. 
A  little  hot  water,  butter,  salt,  and  pepper  may  be  added  to 
the  pan  and  then  be  poured  over  the  meat,  for  a  gravy ;  or 
season  as  a  broiled  steak. 

To  cook  chops.  —  Lamb  and  mutton  chops  may  be  broiled 
in  the  same  manner  as  beefsteak.  Veal  chops  must  be  more 
thoroughly  cooked  than  is  possible  in  broiling,  so  they  must 


COMPOSITION   AND   PREPARATION    OF   MEATS      95 

1)0  rolled  in  some  form  of  fat-proof  coating  and  cookcid  in 
hot  fat.  Pork  chops  also  require  long  cooking,  but  they 
contain  (Plough  fat  in  themselves  to  finish  the  cooking  it 
they  are  placed  dire(;tly  on  hot  pan. 

Pork  Chops 

Wipe  chops,  sprinkle  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  place  in  a  hot 
frying  pan ;  reduce  heat,  cover,  cook  slowly  until  tender  and  well- 
browned  on  both  sides,  about  twenty  minutes. 

Veal  Chops 

Trim  and  wipe  the  chops  or  slices  from  the  thick  part  of  the  leg. 
Season  with  salt  and  pepper,  roll  in  bread  crumbs,  then  in  egg 
beaten  with  1  tb.  water,  and  again  in  crumbs.  Sauter  in  hot  salt 
pork  fat  or  lard  till  well  browned  on  both  sides.  Arrange  in  a  circle 
about  tlie  dish,  and  fill  the  center  with  mashed  potatoes,  peas, 
tomato  sauce,  or  boiled  and  seasoned  string  beans.  The  chops  may 
also  be  rolled  in  flour  and  cooked  as  above. 


Ham 

Wipe  ham,  remove  the  rind.  Place  ham  in  a  hot  frying  pan  and 
cook  ten  minutes  or  till  brown  on  both  sides.  Put  on  a  platter 
and  keep  warm.  Make  a  gravy  by  adding  2  tb.  flour  to  the  fat 
in  the  pan  and  gradually  stirring  in  1  c.  milk.  Or  fry  eggs  in  the 
fat  left  in  the  pan  and  serve  with  the  ham. 

If  cooked  too  long,  ham  will  become  hard  and  dry. 

Bacon 

Remove  rind  from  thin  slices  of  bacon.  Put  bacon  in  a  fine 
wire  broiler,  place  over  a  dripping  pan  and  bake  in  a  hot  oven  until 
bacon  is  crisp  and  brown,  turning  once.  The, fat  which  has  dripped 
into  the  pan  may  be  used  for  frying. 


96  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Lemon  Butter 

2  tb.  butter  |  tb.  lemon  juice 


^  tb.  minced  parsley 


^  ssp.  pepper 


Mix  well  and  spread  on  hot  broiled  steak,  chops,  or  fish,  after 
placing  them  on  the  platter. 

Brown  Mushroom  Sauce 

4  tb.  butter  1  pt.  hot  stock 

5  tb.  flour  Salt  and  pepper 

I  can  mushrooms 

Brown  the  butter,  add  flour  and  brown,  but  be  careful  not  to 
burn.  Let  cool  a  little  and  add  the  stock  griadually.  Cook  till 
smooth.     Season,  add  mushrooms,  and  cook  five  minutes. 

1  tb.  Worcestershire  sauce  or  catsup  may  be  added. 

Baked  Breaded  Veal  and  Tomato  Sauce 

One  cup  bread  crumbs,  3tb.  chopped  salt  pork,  salt,  and  pepper. 
Wipe  veal  chops  or  steak  and  spread  with  the  dressing,  after  putting 
in  the  pan.  Bake  30  m.  and  serve  with  a  sauce.  Lamb  chops 
may  be  prepared  in  the  same  way.  If  the  crumbs  are  too  brown 
before  sufficiently  baked,  baste  with  a  little  hot  water.  Put 
tomato  sauce  in  the  center  of  the  platter  and  arrange  the  chops 
around  the  edge. 

Hamburg  Steak 

Chop  the  round  of  beef  fine  and  season  with  salt  and  pepper, 
and  if  desired,  a  little  onion.  Make  into  cakes.  Put  in  a  greased 
broiler  and  broil  over  clear  coals.     Spread  with  butter. 

Veal  Loaf 

2  lb.  lean  veal  chopped  with  |  lb.  salt  pork.  Add  4  butter 
crackers,  rolled,  2  beaten  eggs,  2  ts.  salt,  1  ssp.  pepper,  1  ssp. 
nutmeg.  Pack  into  a  small  bread  pan  and  bake  slowly  2  hr.  It 
may  be  served  hot  with  a  tomato  sauce,  or  be  served  cold. 


COMPOSITION    AND   PRKPAHATION    OF   MEATS      97 

Dried  Beef  and  Cream 

\  lb.  dried  beef,  thinly  sliced  1  c.  milk 

2  tb.  butter  2  tb.  flour 

Remove  the  skin  and  separate  meat  in  pieces.  Cover  with  hot 
water  and  let  stand  10  m.  Drain  and  fry  in  the  hot  butter.  Add 
the  milk  and  when  boiling  stir  in  the  flour  wet  in  a  httle  cold  milk 
or  water.     Cook  till  smooth. 

Warmed-over  Meats.  —  To  prepare  meats  for  warming 
over,  remove  all  bone,  skin,  gristle,  and  excess  of  fat  from 
meat.  The  bone,  skin,  and  gristle  may  be  put  in  the  soup 
kettle  in  making  stock,  and  the  fat  may  be  tried  out  for  drip- 
pings. Cook  quickly  all  tender  meat,  for  if  kept  at  boiling 
point  for  any  length  of  time,  the  protein  will  become  tough. 
Make  the  tough  portions  of  meat  tender  by  letting  them 
simmer  in  water.  Rice,  macaroni,  bread  crumbs,  tomatoes, 
onions,  etc.,  may  be  used  in  combination  with  different 
meats,  making  many  palatable  dishes.  Meat  pies  may  be 
made,  using  baking  powder  biscuit  dough  or  pastry  for  an 
upper  crust. 

Hash 

Chop  cooked  meat,  using  a  small  amount  of  fat.  Add  an  equal 
amount  of  chopped  cold  boiled  potatoes.  -Season  with  salt  and 
pepper  and  a  little  chopped  onion.  Put  2  or  3  tb.  hot  water  in  an 
iron  fr3dng  pan  and  1  tb.  drippings.  Put  in  the  mixture,  cover  the 
pan  and  let  simmer  slowly  till  a  brown  crust  is  formed ;  about  20 
minutes.  Do  not  stir.  Fold  over,  turn  out  on  a  warm  platter, 
and  garnish  with  parsley. 

Cottage  Pie 

Chop  cold  meat  fine.  To  every  cupful  add  1  ssp.  salt,  |  ssp. 
pepper,  a  pinch  of  summer  savory  or  thyme,  f  c.  gravy  or  stock. 
Put  into  a  baking  dish  and  cover  with  a  crust  of  mashed  potatoes. 


98  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Brush  with  milk  and  bake  in  the  oven  till  a  golden  brown,  about 
twenty  minutes.  Omit  the  herb  and  add  1  ts.  finely  chopped  onion, 
if  Hked. 

Meat  Rechauffe 

Make  a  wall  of  mashed  potatoes  around  a  baking  dish  and  fill 
the  center  with  cooked  meat  cut  in  cubes.  Pour  over  the  meat 
a  gravy,  tomato,  or  white  sauce.  Bake  till  a  delicate  brown.  Gar- 
nish with  parsley. 

Minced  Mutton 

Chop  meat.  Put  into  a  frying  pan,  season  with  salt,  pepper  and 
celery, salt.  Dredge  well  with  flour,  stir,  and  add  enough  stock,  or 
hot  water,  to  make  a  gravy.  Cook  about  5  minutes.  Pour  over 
slices  of  toast. 

Meat  Souffle 

Make  1  c.  white  sauce,  season  with  a  little  onion  and  parsley, 
add  1  c.  finely  chopped  meat  (veal  or  chicken  preferred).  Add 
yolks  of  two  eggs  well  beaten.  Cook  1  m.  When  cool  fold  in  the 
beaten  whites.  Bake  in  a  buttered  baking  dish  about  20  m. 
in  slow  oven.  Serve  immediately.  If  for  lunch,  serve  with  mush- 
room sauce. 

White  Mushroom  Sauce 

Melt  2  tb.  butter,  add  2  tb.  flour.  When  bubbling,  add  slowly 
f  c.  milk  and  \  c.  mushroom  liquor.  Season  with  salt  and  pepper. 
Add  \  can  of  mushrooms,  cut  fine.     When  heated,  serve. 

Scalloped  Chicken 

''  Put  a  layer  of  chicken  cut  into  small  pieces  into  a  baking  dish, 
then  a  layer  of  white  sauce;  repeat,  having  white  sauce  "for  top 
layer.     Cover  with  buttered  crumbs  and  bake  till  brown. 


Forcemeat  Balls 
See  p.  67. 


COMPOSITION    AND   PREPARATION    OF   MEATS      99 

Croquettes 

Sec  p.  148. 

Pressed  Chicken 

Chop  cold  boiled  chicken  fine,  keeping  the  light  and  dark  meats 
separate.  Season  with  salt,  celery  salt,  cayenne.  Boil  down  the 
liquor  in  which  the  chicken  was  cooked  and  add  to  boiling  liquid 
\  box  of  gelatine  which  has  been  soaked  in  |  c.  cold  water,  and 
moisten  the  meat  with  it.  Put  a  layer  of  dark  meat  in  a  square 
mold,  then  strips  of  tongue  or  ham,  a  layer  of  white  meat,  whole 
hard-boiled  eggs,  white  meat,  tongue,  and  dark  meat  as  a  last 
layer.  Put  a  heavy  weight  on  top  and  let  stand  for  several  hours. 
Remove  from  mold  and  cut  in  shces. 


CHAPTER   X 
POULTRY  AND   FISH 

COMPOSITION  OF   POULTRY   (ATWATER) 


Refuse  . 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Ash 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Chicken,  broiler  .     . 

41.6 

43.7 

12.8 

1.4 

.7 

Fowls 

25.9 

47.1 

13.7 

12.3 

.7 

Goose 

17.6 

38.5 

13.4 

29.8 

.7 

Turkey 

22.5 

42.4 

16.1 

18.4 

.8 

To  select  Poultry.  —  Soft  yellow  feet,  smooth  skin,  soft 
cartilage  at  end  of  breastbone,  pinfeathers,  tender  skin 
under  the  wing  which  is  easily  broken  by  bending  back  the 
wing,  —  indicate  tender  poultry. 

Long  hairs,  long  thin  necks,  flesh  of  purplish  tinge,  hard 
feet  with  sharp  scales,  —  indicate  tough  poultry. 

Cost  of  Chicken 

(Students  compile  following  facts  from  the  weight  of  chicken 
used  in  lesson :) 

Cost  of  chicken  as  purchased     .     .     .    '.     .     .     .     .     .     .     . 

Weight  of  chicken  as  purchased 

Cost  per  pound  as  purchased      .     . 

Weight  after  dressing 

Weight  of  bones <. 

(obtained  after  chicken  has  been  cooked) 
Weight  of  edible  meat  .     .     .     .     c 

(difference  between  dressed  meat  and  weight  of  bones) 
Cost  per  pound  of  edible  meat    ........     o     „     o 

100 


POULTRY  AND   FISH  101 

To  prepare  Poultry  for  Cooking.  —  R(3move  pinfeathers, 
singe  to  remove  hairs,  over  a  tb.  alcohol  burning  in  a  saucer 
or  over  a  blaze.  Cut  off  head ;  cut  the  skin  down  the  back 
of  the  neck,  remove  windpipe  and  crop.  Cut  neck  off  close 
to  the  body,  leaving  the  skin  long  that  it  may  be  folded  over 
on  the  back  of  the  chicken  in  cooking.  Cut  through  the 
skin  below  the  leg  joint  without  cutting  the  tendons.  Place 
leg  at  end  of  board  and  break  the  joint ;  hold  the  fowl  firmly 
in  left  hand  and  pull  off  the  foot  with  tendons.  In  old  birds, 
the  tendons  must  be  taken  out  one  at  a  time,  using  a  steel 
skewer.  Make  an  incision  below  the  breastbone  and  with 
the  hand  remove  the  entrails,  gizzard,  heart,  and  liver.  The 
last  three  are  called  giblets.  Do  not  break  the  gall  bladder, 
which  lies  on  the  under  surface  of  the  right  lobe  of  the  liver. 
Remove  carefully  the  lungs  and  kidneys,  which  lie  in  the 
hollow  near  the  backbone.  Remove  the  oil  bag  and  wash 
the  fowl  by  letting  cold  water  run  through  it,  but  do  not  let 
it  soak  in  cold  water.     Clean  the  giblets  carefully. 

To  cut  up  a  Chicken.  —  Singe,  and  remove  the  pinfeathers. 
Cut  off  the  legs  and  wings  at  the  joints.  Cut  from  near  the 
vent,  through  the  membrane  lying  between  the  end  of  the 
breastbone  and  the  tail,  down  to  the  backbone,  on  either 
side.  Then  remove  the  entrails.  Break  off  the  backbone 
just  below  the  ribs.  Cut  through  the  cartilage  dividing  the 
ribs,  and  separate  the  collar  bone  from  the  breast. 

Methods  of  Cooking  Chickens 
Young  chickens. 

(1)  Broiled,  (2)  fried,  (3)  roasted. 
Old  chickens. 

(1)  Roasted,  (2)  boiled,  (3)  fricassee,  (4)  stew,  (5)  cas- 
serole. 


102  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Roast  Chicken 

Clean  and  stuff  a  chicken.  Sew  up  the  incisions.  Rub  all  over 
with  salt.  Tie  it  into  a  compact  shape,  fastening  the  legs  and  wings 
close  to  the  body ;  dredge  with  flour.  Lay  strips  of  salt  pork  over 
chicken.  Place  in  a  hot  oven,  and  when  the  flour  browns  baste 
with  boiling  water  every  10  m.,  using  more  water,  if  necessary, 
to  prevent  burning.  Turn  the  chicken  that  it  may  brown  evenly. 
When  the  breast  meat  is  tender,  the  chicken  is  sufficiently 
cooked.     Cook  the  giblets  in  water  until  tender. 

Stuffing 

Two  c.  crumbs,  2  tb.  butter,  or  small  piece  salt  pork  chopped, 
salt,  pepper,  ma.joram,  summer  savory,  or  thyme  to  taste,  |  c.  boil- 
ing water.  Melt  the  butter  in  the  water  and  pour  over  the  crumbs 
to  which  seasoning  has  been  added. 

Chicken  Gravy 

Pour  off  all  but  about  4  tb.  of  fat  from  the  pan  in  which  chicken 
has  been  roasted.  Add  5  tb.  flour;  when  brown,  add  2  c.  of  the 
water  in  which  giblets  have  been  boiled.  Cook  5  minutes,  season 
with  salt  and  pepper,  and  if  liked,  add  the  giblets  finely  chopped. 

Stewed  Chicken 

Dress,  clean,  and  cut  up  a  chicken.  Put  into  a  kettle  with  a  few 
slices  of  salt  pork  and  barely  cover  with  boiling  water.  Boil  5  m., 
then  simmer  until  tender.  When  about  half  done  add  1  ts.  salt. 
Cook  a  young  chicken  about  1^  h.,  an  old  one  2  to  2^  h.  When 
done  wet  4  tb.  flour  in  cold  water  to  form  a  smooth  paste  and  stir 
into  the  boiling  mixture.  Season.  Add  1  c.  cream  or  milk  and 
2  tb.  butter.     When  hot  serve.     Dumplings  may  be  added. 

Creamed  Chicken 

1^  c.  cold  chicken,  diced  1  c.  white  sauce 

I  ts.  celery  salt  I  c.  mushrooms,  sliced 

Heat  the  chicken  and  mushrooms  in  the  sauce  over  hot  water. 
Serve  on  toast,  in  toast  boxes,  or  patty  shells. 


POULTRY  AND  FISH 


103 


FISH 

Composition  of  Various  Fish  (Atwater.) 


Rei^use 

Proteid 

Fat 

Mineral 
Matter 

Water 

Black  Bass       .... 

Bluefish 

Fresh  Cod 

Salt  Cod  —  boneless 

Mackerel 

Salmon 

Trout      

Whitefisli 

Lobster 

54.8 
55.7 
52.5 

44'6 
39.2 
48.1 
53.5 
61.7 

9.3 

8.3 

8 
22.2 
10 
12.4 

9.8 
10.3 

5.9 

.8 

.5 

.2 

.3 

4.3 

8.1 

1.1 

3. 

.7 

.5 
.5 

.6 
23.1 

.7 
.9 
.6 

.7 
.8 

34.6 

40.4 
32.5 
30.7 

Fish  should  be  fresh  and  be  used  in  season.  When  fresh, 
the  fish  is  firm,  the  eyes  bright.  White-blooded  fish  have 
fat  secreted  in  the  liver.  Examples :  whitefish,  cod,  had- 
dock, perch,  etc.  Red-blooded  fish  have  fat  distributed 
throughout  the  flesh.  Examples :  salmon,  mackerel,  blue- 
fish, herring.  Broiling,  boiling,  baking,  are  the  most  whole- 
some methods  of  cooking  fish. 


Broiled  Fish 

Bone  the  fish,  removing  the  head  and  tail.  Wipe  and  dry,  and 
sprinkle  with  salt  and  pepper.  Place  in  greased  broiler  and  broil 
the  flesh  side  first;  then  turn  and  broil  the  skin  side  till  brown 
and  crisp.  Loosen  the  fish  from  both  sides  of  the  broiler  and  slip 
on  to  a  hot  platter,  flesh  side  up.  Season  with  salt  and  pepper  and 
butter,  or  spread  with  lemon  butter.  Garnish  with  parsley  and 
lemon. 

Planked  Fish 

Bone  a  fish.  Lay  it  on  a  hot  hardwood  plank,  flesh  side  up. 
Sprinkle  with  salt  and  pepper  and  bits  of  butter.     Bake  on  upper 


104  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

shelf  in  oven  or  under  a  gas  broiler,  about  30  m.  or  till  brown.  Ten 
minutes  before  it  is  done  put  a  border  of  mashed  potatoes  around 
the  fish,  using  a  pastry  bag  and  tube. 

Put  plank  on  a  platter  and  garnish  with  parsley,  shredded  lettuce, 
radishes,  lemon  fans,  etc. 

Baked  Fish 

Clean,  wash,  and  dry  the  fish.  Do  not  remove  the  head  or  tail. 
Rub  all  over  with  salt,  stuff,  and  sew  up.  Put  two  strips  of  cotton 
cloth  in  pan  (if  you  have  not  a- fish  sheet),  to  help  remove  the  fish 
when  baked.  Lay  the  fish  in  the  pan  and  skewer  into  the  shape  of 
a  letter  S.  Cut  gashes  on  top  and  .lay  strips  of  salt  pork  in  them 
and  around  the  pan.  Sprinkle  the  fish  with  salt  and  pepper,  and 
dredge  with  flour.  Put  in  a  iiot  oven.  When  the  flour  begins 
to  brown,  baste  with  the  fat  in  the  pan  and  boiling  water.  The 
fish  is  done  when  the  flesh  separates  easily  from  the  bone.  Bake 
about  1  hour. 

Lift  carefully  on  a  hot  platter,  draw  out  skewers  or  strings,  and 
serve  with  drawn  butter  or  egg  sauce. 

Boiled  Fish 

Add  the  juice  of  |  lemon  or  j  c.  vinegar  to  the  water  in  which  the 
fish  is  to  be  boiled.  Put  fish  on  a  plate  and  tie  all  in  a  piece  of 
cheesecloth.  Put  fish  in  boiling  water  and  let  simmer  until  tne 
flesh  separates  easily  from  the  bones.  Add  1  tb.  salt  to  water  when 
fish  is  nearly  cooked.  Remove  from  plate  and  put  on  a  folded 
napkin  on  a  platter.  Serve  a  sauce  separately.  Or,  omit  napkin 
and  pour  sauce  over  and  around  the  fish. 

Drawn  Butter 

1  pt.  hot  water  or  stock  4  tb.  flour 

6  tb.  butter  ^  ts.  salt 

I  ssp.  pepper 

Put  4  tb.  butter  in  the  pan;    when  bubbling,  but  not  brown, 

add  the  flour.     Add  hot  water  a  little  at  a  time.     When  thick  and 


POULTRY  AND   FISH  105 

perfectly  smooth  add  Hcasonirig  and  remainder  of  the  butter.  8tir 
till  the  latter  is  absorbed.  Chopped  hard-boiled  eggs  may  be 
added. 

Fried  Fish 

Clean  fish  and  wipe  as  dry  as  possible.  Roll  in  seasoned  crumbs, 
dip  in  egg  slightly  beaten  with  1  tb.  water,  and  roll  again  in  crumbs ; 
or  if  preferred,  dip  in  corn  meal.  Cook  in  a  frying  pan,  in  hot  fat, 
till  brown  on  both  sides. 

Large  fish  should  be  boned  and  cut  in  pieces  for  serving.  To  fry 
in  deep  fat  see  page  145. 

Turbot 

Steam  a  whitefish  till  tender.  Remove  bones  and  skin,  and  flake 
the  fish.  Sprinkle  with  salt  and  pepper.  Make  a  white  sauce  with 
1  pt.  milk,  6  tb.  flour  and  4  tb.  butter.  Season  with  salt  and  pepper. 
When  cool  add  1  or  2  beaten  eggs,  1  tb.  each  minced  onion  and  par- 
sley. Put  layers  of  fish  and  sauce  in  a  baking  dish.  Sprinkle  top 
with  buttered  crumbs  and  bake  till  brown. 

Creamed  Codfish 

Pick  salt'  codfish  in  small  pieces,  cover  with  cold  water,  heat, 
and  let  simmer  till  tender.  Drain  and  cover  with  milk.  When 
boiling  thicken  with  flour  and  butter  rubbed  together  in  the  pro- 
portion of  2  tb.  of  each  to  every  cup  of  milk.  Just  before  serving 
add  1  beaten  yolk  of  egg.     Cook  1  m. 

Fish  Balls 

1  c.  raw  salt  fish  1  egg  well  beaten 

1  pt.  potatoes  J  ssp.  pepper 

1  ts.  butter  More  salt  if  needed 

Shred  the  fish.  Pare  and  quarter  potatoes.  Put  fish  and  pota- 
toes in  stewpan  and  cover  with  boiling  water.  Boil  25  m.  or 
till  potatoes  are  soft.     Do  not  boil  too  long  or  they  will  be  soggy. 


106  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Drain  well.  Mash  and  beat  till  very  light.  Add  butter  and 
pepper,  and  when  slightly  cool,  the  beaten  egg.  Shape  in  a  tb.  and 
drop  in  a  kettle  of  smoking  hot  fat.  Fry  only  a  few  at  a  time,  or 
they  will  cool  the  fat.  Drain  on  brown  paper.  Or,  shape  into 
flat  cakes,  roll  in  flour,  and  sauter  in  hot  fat. 

Salmon  in  Mold 

1  can  salmon  4  tb.  melted  butter 

3  eggs,  beaten  light  ^  c.  fine  bread  crumbs 

Salt,  cayenne,  parsley 
.  Remove  oil,  bones  and  skin  from  fish.     Mince  fish  fine.     Rub 
in  the  butter  till  smooth.     Add  crumbs  to  beaten  egg.     Season  the 
fish.     Add  eggs  and  crumbs.     Put  into  a  buttered  mold,  cover  the 
mold,  and  steam  1  h.     Serve  with  sauce. 

Sauce  for  Salmon 

Make  a  sauce  with  1  c.  boiling  milk,  1  tb.  flour,  and  2  tb.  butter. 
Add  hquor  from  the  salmon.  Season  with  salt,  cayenne,  1  ts. 
tomato  catsup.     Just  before  taking  from  fire  add  1  beaten  egg. 

Sardines  on  Toast 

Drain  sardines.  Cook  in  a  chafing-dish  till  heated,  turning  often. 
Place  on  small  oblong  pieces  of  toast  and  serve  with  lemon  butter. 
Or,  lay  sardines  on  toast  and  heat  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Lobster  Farci 

1  pt.  can  lobster  4  tb.  butter 

1  pt.  milk  6  tb.  flour 

Salt  and  cayenne 
Melt  the  butter,  add  flour,  and  when  bubbling  add  milk  gradu- 
ally.    When  thick  and  smooth  add  lobster,  which  has  been  picked 
fine.     Season.     Put    in    buttered    shells.     Cover     with    buttered 
crumbs  and  bake  till  brown. 


POULTRY  AND   FISH  107 

Escalloped  Oysters 

1  pt.  oysters  1|  c.  crumbs 

4  tb.  oyster  liquor  ^  c.  butter  melted 

6  tb.  milk  or  cream  Salt  and  pepper 

Stir  the  melted  butter  into  the  crumbs.  Put  a  thin  layer  in 
bottom  of  a  buttered  baking  dish,  cover  with  oysters,  and  sprinkle 
with  salt  and  pepper,  add  part  of  the  milk  and  oyster  liquor.  Re- 
peat, and  cover  the  top  with  crumbs.  Bake  40  m.  in  hot  oven. 
Two  layers  of  oysters  are  sufficient ;  if  more  be  used,  the  center  layer 
will  be  underdone. 

Creamed  Oysters 

Wash,  by  pouring  over  them  I  c.  water,  and  look  over  1  c.  oysters. 
Parboil  them  in  the  oyster  liquor  and  the  water  in  which  they 
were  washed,  until  the  edges  curl  and  the  oysters  are  plump.     Drain. 
Make  a  white  sauce  with 

3  tb.  butter  |  c.  oyster  liquor 

3  tb;  flour  ^  ts.  salt 

I  c.  milk  I  ssp.  pepper 

Add  the  parboiled  oysters  and  cook  till  hot.  Serve  on  toast, 
in  toast  boxes,  or  patty  shells. 

Toast  Boxes 

Cut  stale  bread  into  2  inch  cubes,  trim  the  crust,  take  out  the 
center,  leaving  the  bread  in  the'  form  of  a  box.  Brush  with  melted 
butter  and  bake  in  a  quick  oven  until  a  light  brown. 

Fill  with  any  creamed  mixture. 


CHAPTER  XI 
MILK  AND  MILK  PRODUCTS 

AVERAGE   COMPOSITION   OF   MILK    (SNYDER) 


'  Water 

Fat 

Casein 

Albumen 

Lactose 

Ash 

87.0% 

3.5% 

3.25%. 

0.5% 

5.0% 

0.75% 

Milk  is  the  food  of  the  young  animal,  and  hence  contains  all 
the  nutrients  necessary  for  the  support  of  the  body.  Owing 
to  the  large  per  cent  of  water  in  its  composition,  milk  is  a 
bulky  food,  and  being  deficient  in  starch,  is  not  a  satisfactory 
food  for  the  healthy  adult. 

Milk  is  a  white,  opaque  liquid.  It  consists  of  a  bluish 
white  liquid,  called  serum,  in  which  float  globules  of  fat, 
which  give  the  milk  the  appearance  of  a  white  liquid.  These 
fat  globules  are  suspended  through  the  milk  in  the  form  of 
an  emulsion,  fresh  milk  being  the  most  perfect  example  of 
an  emulsion.  Upon  standing,  however,  the  emulsion  is 
broken  and  the  fat  rises  to  the  surface  in  the  form  of  cream. 

Butter  is  made  by  separating  the  fat  from  cream  by 
churning,  thus  completely  breaking  down  the  emulsion  of 
fat.  Skimmed  milk  contains  practically  all  the  ingredients 
of  whole  milk  with  the  exception  of  the  fat,  and  forms  a 
cheap  supply  of  protein.  The  protein  of  the  milk  is  largely 
in  the  form  of  casein,  which  contains  both  sulphur  and 
phosphorus. 

108 


MILK  AND   MILK   PRODUCTS  109 

Casoiii  (coagulates  when  an  acid  is  added  to  it,  or  when 
an  acid  is  formed  in  the  milk  during  the  process  of  lactic 
fermentation.  It  forms  a  clot  in  the  stomach  by  the  action 
of  the  enzyme  rennin,  which  is  secreted  by  the  stomach,  and 
it  then  digests  as  a  solid  food.  In  cheese  making  and  in  the 
making  of  junket,  a  commercial  form  of  rennin  obtained 
from  the  second  stomach  of  the  calf  is  added  to  the  milk, 
thus  causing  it  to  clot.  The  addition  of  limewater,  or  some 
cereal  water,  as  barley  water,  tends  to  make  the  casein  form 
a  lighter  and  more  digestible  clot,  hence  they  are  often 
added  to  baby  foods. 

The  albumen  of  milk,  or  lact-albumen,  coagulates  with 
heat  and  forms  the  scum  of  boiled  milk. 

Lactose,  or  milk  sugar,  is  less  soluble  than  cane  sugar  and 
does  not  taste  as  sweet.  It  is  the  sugar  which  is  used  in 
baby  foods.  It  is  obtained  from  the  whey  left  from  cheese 
making  after  the  casein  and  fat  have  been  removed. 

The  souring  of  milk  is  caused  by  the  action  of  lactic  bacilli 
present  in  the  milk.  The  bacilli  feed  upon  the  lactose 
changing  it  to  lactic  acid,  which  acid  reacts  upon  the  casein, 
causing  it  to  coagulate,  or  form  a  curd.  In  the  large  in- 
testine of  the  human  body  are  found  great  numbers  of  bac- 
teria which  feed  upon  the  food  residue  present  there,  forming 
injurious  compounds  which  are  absorbed  by  the  blood,  with 
harmful  results.  The  growth  of  some  of  these  putrefactive 
bacteria  is  thought  to  be  checked  by  the  presence  of  lactic 
acid  and  by  the  action  of  lactic  bacilli ;  hence,  sour  milk  is 
considered  a  healthful,  as  well  as  a  nutritious  food. 

The  mineral  matter  in  milk  consists  largely  of  the  phos- 
phates and  chlorides  of  soda,  lime,  and  potash. 

Milk  contains  large  numbers  of  bacteria.  Few  bacteria 
are  normally  present  in  fresh  milk,  but  they  enter  the  milk 
on  account  of  the  unsanitary  conditions  attendant  upon 


110  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

milking  and  the  subsequent  care  of  milk.  They  reproduce 
very  rapidly  if  the  milk  is  not  cooled.  Typhoid  fever,  chil- 
dren's summer  diseases  of  the  intestines,  tuberculosis,  and 
other  diseases  are  often  traced  to  the  milk  supply;  con- 
sequently, the  most  cleanly  conditions  should  be  insisted 
upon  by  the  health  authorities,  in  the  stable,  the  care  of 
the  cow,  cleanliness  of  the  milkers  and  of  all  utensils  which 
hold  the  milk.  Milk  should  be  sold  only  in  bottles  which 
are  filled  and  sealed  at  the  dairy,  the  seal  to  be  broken  by 
the  consumer  only. 

Experiment  45.  —  Put  a  drop  of  cream  on  filter  paper ;  when 
dry,  note  the  characteristic  grease  spot.     This  is  a  test  for  fat. 

Experiment  46.  —  Fill  a  tair  cylinder  with  milk,  and  determine 
the  specific  gravity  with  a  lactometer. 

Experiment  47.  —  Examine  a  drop  of  milk  under  microscope. 
Explain  appearance  and  make  a  drawing  of  the  fat  globules  seen. 

Experiment  48.  —  To  ^  c.  milk  warmed  to  100°  F.  add  |  of  a 
rennet  tablet  dissolved  in  |  ts.  water.  Mix  quickly.  Let  stand  in 
a  warm  place  until  the  milk  clots.  Break  the  clot  lightly  and  put 
into  a  filter  paper.  Test  the  curd  or  casein  for  protein.  (See  pro- 
tein test,  page  69.) 

Experiment  49.  —  Test  the  filtrate  from  above  experiment 
with  Fehling  solution  for  sugar. 

BUTTER 

Butter  is  made  by  separating  the  fat  globules  of  cream  by 
churning,  after  the  cream  has  soured  from  the  action  of  bac- 
teria. 

Composition  of  Butter  (J.  C.  Olsen) 


Fat 

Water 

Salt 

Sugar 

84% 

12.8  % 

•      2% 

0.4% 

MILK   AND   MILK   PRODUCTS  HI 

Butter  fat  is  one  of  the  most  palatable,  easily  digested, 
and  easily  assimilated  forms  of  fat.  Its  flavor  is  due  to 
bacterial  action.  In  the  modern  creamery  all  conditions  are 
most  sanitary ;  bacteria  which  give  a  disagreeable  odor  and 
taste  to  butter  are  not  present.  Butter  is  artificially  colored, 
but  the  coloring  is  harmless. 

Renovated  butter  is  butter  which  has  become  rancid  and 
is  then  subjected  to  a  process  of  renovation,  by  which  the 
disagreeable  odors  and  flavors  are  removed.  It  is  not  an 
unwholesome  product,  but  should  not  be  sold  at  butter 
prices.  Most  states  require  that  it  be  plainly  marked 
"renovated"  or   "process"  butter. 

Oleomargarine  or  Butterine.  —  The  manufacture  of  these 
butter  substitutes  is  carried  on  under  government  inspection, 
and  the  products  are  clean  and  wholesome,  lacking,  however, 
the  dehcate  flavor  of  butter.  They  are  manufactured  from 
a  high  grade  of  lard,  cottonseed  oil,  and  milk,  and  a  small 
amount  of  butter  is  generally  added  for  flavor.  There  is  no 
objection  to  their  use  in  cookery,  and  when  they  are  sold 
under  their  true  names  and  at  a  reasonable  price,  they  are 
good  substitutes  for  butter  in  cooking. 

Experiment  50.  —  Foam  test  to  distinguish  butter  from  oleo- 
margarine. Melt  in  separate  dishes  butter,  oleomargarine,  and 
renovated  butter.  The  butter  boils  quietly  and  produces  consider- 
able foam,  while  the  other  two  sputter  and  crackle  violently,  pro- 
ducing but  little  foam. 

Experiment  51. —  Beat  one  pint  of  ripened  cream  with  an  egg- 
beater  or  whip  churn  until  the  butter  fat  separates.  Collect  these 
lumps  and  form  into  a  mass.  Wash  in  cold  water  to  remove  any 
milk ;  drain  off  the  water.  Add  salt  to  taste.  Weigh  the  butter 
and  estimate  the  cost.  How  much  cream  would  be  required  to 
make  one  pound  of  butter  ?  What  is  the  composition  of  butter- 
milk? 


112 


DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


CHEESE 

Average  Composition  of  Cheese  (Atwater) 


•  Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbohydrates 

Ash 

34.2  % 

25.2  % 

33.7  % 

9  AO/ 

3.8% 

Cheese  is  made  from  whole  milk,  from  milk  plus  cream, 
from  cream,  and  from  skim  milk.  The  casein  is  precipitated 
by  the  action  of  rennet,  forming  a  curd  to  which  most  of 
the  fat  attaches  itself.  The  curd  is  then  broken  up  and  the 
whole  heated  to  about  108°  F.  The  whey  is  drained  off, 
carrying  with  it  most  of  the  lactose  and  albumen.  The 
curd  is  salted  and  pressed.  It  is  then  kept  for  several  weeks 
or  longer  to  develop  flavor,  or  ripen  by  the  action  of  bacteria. 
The  texture  of  the  cheese  also  changes  in  ripening. 

As  a  food,  cheese  is  used  in  small  amounts  as  a  flavor, 
and  in  large  amounts  as  a  highly  nutritive  protein  food. 
The  lower-priced  cheeses  are  an  important  source  of  protein 
and  fat  in  the  diet  and  make  good  meat  substitutes.  It  has 
been  shown  that  cheese  is  not  difficult  of  digestion  for  the 
majority  of  persons. 

Experiment  52.  —  (a)  Heat  a  small  piece  of  cheese  in  a  pan 
directly  over  the  fire  until  it  melts.     Let  boil  and  note  results. 

(6)  Melt  a  similar  piece  of  cheese  in  a  pan  over  hot  water, 
removing  from  water  as  soon  as  it  melts. 

Compare  the  texture  of  results  of  (a)  and  (b).  Should  cheese 
be  cooked  at  a  high  or  low  temperature  ?  What  food  principle  must 
be  considered  in  cooking  cheese  ? 

The  Care  of  Cheese.  —  Wrap  the  cheese  in  a  slightly 
dampened  cloth  or  in  paraffin  paper  and  then  in  a  heavier 
paper.     Cheese  molds  more  readily  when  it  is  put  in  a  covered 


MILK  AND   MILK  PRODUCTS  113 

dish  with  the  air  excluded.  Cheese  contains  a  large  per 
cent  of  protein,  so  should  not  be  raised  to  a  high  tempera- 
ture in  cooking.  Many  palatable  dishes  can  be  prepared 
from  cheese  but  since  it  is  deficient  in  starch,  some  starchy 
food  is  usually  added  to  it,  as  macaroni,  rice,  bread,  etc. 

Cottage  Cheese 

Set  a  dish  of  thick  sour  milk  in  a  pan  of  lukewarm  water  (100°). 
When  the  curd  is  well  set,  strain  off  the  whey  through  a  cheese 
cloth.  Work  the  curd  with  a  fork  or  potato  masher  until  fine- 
grained. Season  with  salt  and  moisten  with  cream.  Shape  into 
small  cakes  suitable  for  ser^dng.  Chopped  parsley,  pimentos,  or 
olives  may  be  added  to  vary  the  flavor. 

Welsh  Rarebit  No.  i 

I  lb.  rich  cream  cheese  1  egg 

I  c.  milk  or  cream  4  sHces  of  toast  or  wafers 

J  ts.  mustard  Speck  of  cayenne 

Cut  the  cheese  in  small  pieces  and  melt  over  hot  water,  in  chafing 
dish  or  double  boiler.  Add  milk  and  stir  rapidly.  Add  the  season- 
ing to  the  beaten  egg,  stir  in  slowly  and  cook  till  it  thickens  a  little, 
but  do  not  let  it  curdle.     Pour  over  the  toast  or  wafers. 

Welsh  Rarebit  No.  2 

Melt  cream  cheese  in  double  boiler  or  chafing  dish.  Add  milk 
or  cream  slowly  to  thin.  Season  with  cayenne  and  mustard  and 
stir  in  a  beaten  egg.  When  smooth  pour  over  toast  or  wafers. 
Do  not  overcook  the  cheese. 

American  Rarebit 

Soak  1  c.  grated  bread  crumbs  in  1  c.  milk  fifteen  minutes.  Melt 
2  tb.  butter  in  chafing-dish,  add  1  c.  grated  or  broken  cheese. 
When  cheese  is  melted,  add  the  bread  and  milk,  1  egg  well  beaten, 
salt  and  cayenne  to  taste.  Stir  rapidly,  and  when  smooth  serve 
on  toast  or  crackers. 


114  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Cheese  Fondue 

1  c.  scalded  milk  1  tb.  butter 

1  c.  soft  stale  bread  crumbs  ^  ts.  salt 

I  lb.  mild  cheese  cut  fine  I  ts.  mustard 

or  grated  Few  grains  cayenne 

Add  above  ingredients  to  hot  milk.     When  well  mixed,  remove 

from  fire  and  add  2  beaten  yolks  of  eggs.     Fold  in  2  beaten  whites. 

Put  into  a  buttered  earthen  baking  dish,  and  bake  twenty  minutes 

in  a  moderate  oven.     Serve  immediately,  as  it  will  fall  if  it  stands. 


CHAPTER   XII 
WATER  AND  BEVERAGES 

Water  is  composed  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  its  chemical 
formula  being  H2O.  Water  is  very  widely  distributed  in 
nature ;  it  covers  three-fourths  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  is 
present  in  the  soil  and  rocks  and  in  all  animal  and  vegetable 
organisms.  The  human  body  is  composed  of  about  70  per 
cent  water.  The  body  obtains  its  water  supply  from  foods 
and  beverages,  and  a  small  amount  of  water  is  formed 
chemically  in  the  body  by  the  oxidation  of  the  hydrogen  of 
foods. 

Water  is  a  very  important  solvent,  dissolving  many  sub- 
stances. It  also  holds  many  organic  substances  in  suspen- 
sion. Water  which  is  chemically  pure  contains  no  foreign 
substance  of  any  kind.  Distilled  water  or  condensed  steam 
is  the  only  chemically  pure  water.  Water  that  is  hygieni- 
cally  pure  contains  no  substance  which  is  injurious  to  the 
health  of  those  drinking  it. 

Harmful  or  disease-producing  bacteria  and  decaying  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  matter  are  the  chief  sources  of  water  con- 
tamination, although  the  presence  of  many  chemicals  makes 
it  unfit  for  drinking.  The  disease-producing  bacteria  most 
commonly  found  in  drinking  water  are  the  typhoid  bacilli. 
Many  cases  of  typhoid  fever  may  be  traced  to  the  water 
supply  or  to  milk  which  has  been  diluted  with  impure  water. 
The  common  house  fly  has  been  found  to  be  a  carrier  of  the 
typhoid  bacillus  and  should  never  be  allowed  to  settle  on 
food  or  on  utensils  which  hold  it. 

115 


116  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Sources  of  Water. —  1.  Ram  water.  2.  Springs.  3.  Rivers  and 
lakes.     4.  Surface  wells.     5.  Deep  or  artesian  wells. 

Rain  water  takes  up  the  dust  and  gases  from  the  air,  and 
organic  matter  from  the  roofs  over  which  it  is  collected. 
The  long  storing  in  a  cistern  gives  bacteria  opportunity  to 
grow  in  large  numbers,  causing  the  water  to  be  unsafe  for 
drinking  purposes. 

Springs  are  a  source  of  pure  water  supply  if  they  are  not 
contaminated  by  passing  through  soil  which  is  polluted. 

Rivers  and  lakes  are  a  common  source  of  water  supply, 
but  they  may  be  made  very  unfit  for  drinking  if  the  surface 
water  and  sewage  from  towns  and  cities  is  allowed  to  drain 
into  them. 

Surface  wells  are  a  very  unsafe  source  of  drinking  water 
supply,  and  the  water  should  never  be  used  when  ther^  are 
cesspools,  drains,  barnyards,  or  any  other  sources  of  contam- 
ination within  a  radius  of  200  feet  of  them. 

Deep  artesian  wells  furnish  pure  water  as  a  rule,  unless  the 
piping  is  not  tightly  jointed,  when  impure  water  from  a 
subsoil  stream  near  the  surface  may  enter  the  pipes. 

Methods  of  Purification  of  Water. —  1.  Boiling.  2.  Filtration. 
3.  Distillation. 

Boiling  is  a  certain  method  of  destroying  bacteria.  If 
there  is  the  slightest  doubt  as  to  the  purity  of  the  water,  it 
should  be  boiled  for  twenty  minutes  and  then  be  quickly 
cooled.  It  should  be  put  into  perfectly  clean  bottles,  tightly 
stopped,  and  be  placed  on  or  near  the  ice. 

Filtration.  —  The  modern  filter  contains  a  hollow  tube  of 
unglazed  porcelain,  which  is  porous  and  through  which  the 
water  percolates  slowly.  All  mechanical  impurities  of  the 
water  are  deposited  on  the  surface  of  the  tube.  These  im- 
purities usually  carry  the  bacteria^  which  are  thus  removed. 


WATER   AND   BEVERAGES  117 

The  tubes  should  be  washed  often,  and  occasionally  be  re- 
moved from  the  filter  to  be  baked  or  steamed. 

Charcoal  is  used  in  many  filters,  as  it  removes  all  color, 
odor,  and  taste  from  the  water  by  holding  back  the  organic 
matter;  but  the  charcoal  may  soon  become  a  source  of  con- 
tamination, as  bacteria  will  grow  rapidly  in  the  organic 
matter  present. 

Many  cities  purify  the  water  supply  by  precipitating  the 
organic  matter  present  by  the  addition  of  iron  sulphate, 
alum,  or  calcium  hydrate.  The  bacteria  are  entangled  in  the 
precipitate,  which  is  then  filtered  out  by  mechanical  filtra- 
tion through  sand  and  gravel. 

Distillation  is  the  process  of  condensing  steam.  The 
water  thus  obtained  is  the  only  chemically  pure  water. 

Ice.  —  Freezing  has  little  effect  upon  bacteria  except  to 
lessen  temporarily  their  vitality.  When  the  ice  melts,  the 
bacteria  may  again  become  active.  Ice  made  by  artificial 
means  from  distilled  water  is  the  only  pure  ice.  For  cooling 
drinking  water,  the  water  should  be  placed  on  the  ice  and 
the  ice  should  not  be  put  into  the  water. 

Hard  and  Soft  Water.  —  Soft  water  is  water  in  which  no 
mineral  matter  is  dissolved.  Hard  water  is  water  in  which 
such  minerals  as  lime,  magnesium,  and  iron  are  dissolved. 
Boiling  precipitates  some  of  the  mineral  matter,  thus  tend- 
ing to  soften  the  water.  This  mineral  deposit  may  be  seen 
on  the  inside  of  a  teakettle.  Hard  water  that  is  to  be  used 
for  cleansing  purposes  may  be  softened  by  the  addition  of 
washing  soda,  borax,  ammonia,  potash,  or  soda  lye. 

BEVERAGES 

Pure  water  ranks  as  the  first  and  most  important  of 
beverages.  An  adult  should  drink  about  three  pints  of 
water  a  day.      Tea  and  coffee  are  stimulants,  furnishing 


118  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

no  real  nutriment  to  the  body,  as  they  give  neither  heat 
nor  energy,  nor  do  they  build  tissue.  If  taken  in  excess, 
tea  and  coffee  tend  to  produce  nervousness,  insomnia,  pal- 
pitation of  the  heart,  etc. 

The  stimulating  property  of  coffee  and  tea  is  due  to 
caffeine.  They  also  contain  tannin,  an  astringent,  which  is 
drawn  out  by  boiling  and  which  is  injurious  to  the  digestive 
organs.  Tea  and  coffee  should  not  be  given  to  children. 
Cocoa  and  chocolate  contain  protein,  fat,  and  starch,  hence 
have  a  food  value  in  addition  to  the  milk  added  in 
making  a  beverage.  They  form  a  valuable  hot  beverage 
for  children.  Cocoa  also  contains  theobromine,  which  is  of 
like  nature  to  caffeine,  but  is  a  milder  and  less  harmful 
stimulant. 

Experiment  53.  —  (a)  Pour  1  c.  cold  water  on  |  ts.  tea.  Let 
stand  one-half  hour.     Strain  and  heat. 

(b)  Pour  1  c.  boiling  water  on  ^  ts.  tea.  Let  stand  three  minutes 
in  warm  place. 

(c)  Pour  1  c.  boiling  water  on  |  ts.  tea  and  boil  five  minutes. 

(d)  Put  I  ts.  tea  in  fine  strainer  (tea  ball)  and  pour  1  c.  boiling 
water  through  it. 

Compare  results  as  to  strength,  flavor,  color.  Reserve  part  of 
each  for  the  next  test. 

Experiment  54. — Fill  four  test  tubes  |  full  of  each  of  the  above 
solutions,  add  slowly  to  each  a  saturated  solution  of  cupric 
acetate  until  the  liquid  is  a  light  green.  Boil.  Allow  the  precipi- 
tates to  settle  and  compare  amounts.  This  will  indicate  the  relative 
amounts  of  tannin  present.  Which  of  the  above  methods  should 
be  used  in  making  tea  ?     Which  avoided  ? 

Experiment  55.  —  (a)  Pour  ^  c.  boiling  water  through  1  tb. 
fine  coffee  placed  in  a  fine  strainer,  or  in  cheesecloth. 

(b)  Boil  1  tb.  coffee  and  |  c.  water  ten  minutes. 

Compare  results  as  to  flavor  and  strength.  Test  results  of  (a)  and 
(b)  as  in  Experiment  54  for  tannin. 


WATER  AND   BEVERAGES  119 

Experiment  5G.  —  (a)  Pour  ]  c.  boiling  watoi-  on  .'  is.  tea. 

(6)  Pour  I  c-  liot  water  on  |  ts.  Uv.i. 

Let  both  stand  five  minutes.  (Compare  strength,  eoh>r,  flavor. 
Which  is  the  best  solvent  for  tea,  hot  or  boiling  water  ?  Are  there 
tea  leaves  floating  on  the  surface  when  the  hot  water  is  used  ?  When 
boiling  water  is  used? 

Note.  —  Students  bring  cost  price  of  several  leading  brands  of 
tea,  coffee,  chocolate,  and  cocoa. 

Cost  of  Tea.  —  Weigh  }  lb.  tea.  Measure  the  number  of 
teaspoonfuls  it  contains.  Estimate  the  number  of  cups  of 
tea  that  may  be  prepared  from  1  lb.  Estimate  cost  per  cup 
of  teas  of  different  prices. 

Cost  of  Coffee. — ^  Weigh  out  |  lb.  coffee.  Measure  the 
number  of  tablespoonfuls  in  it.  Estimate  the  number  of 
cups  of  coffee  that  may  be  prepared  from  1  lb.  Estimate 
cost  per  cup  of  different  priced  coffees. 

Coffee.  —  The  coffee  tree  is  native  to  Abyssinia,  but  is 
now  grown  in  all  tropical  countries.  The  coffee  bean  is  the 
seed  of  the  tree  and  is  found  in  the  cherry  like  fruit.  When 
the  fruit  begins  to  shrivel  on  the  trees,  it  is  shaken  to  the 
ground,  is  then  dried,  and  the  seeds  separated  by  wooden 
rollers.  The  green  coffee  berry  has  but  little  flavor,  but 
when  roasted  a  characteristic  flavor  and  odor  are  developed. 

Care  of  Coffeepot.  —  Never  put  the  coffee  or  tea  pot  in 
the  water  in  which  other  dishes  have  been  washed.  Have 
a  small  mop  kept  especially  for  the  coffeepot.  After  using, 
empty  the  pot,  and  with  clear  hot  water  thoroughly  wash 
the  pot  and  spout,  with  the  aid  of  the  mop.  Twice  a  week 
fill  the  pot  with  cold  water,  add  1  tb.  washing  soda,  and  boil 
about  ten  minutes.  Rinse  well.  Never  let  the  brown  sedi- 
ment accumulate  in  a  coffeepot,  or  the  flavor  of  the  finest 
coffee  will  be  ruined. 


120  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Boiled  Coffee 


c.  coffee  ^  egg 


^  c.  cold  water  3^  c.  boiling  water 

Scald  a  granite  ware  coffeepot.  Wash  egg,  break,  and  beat 
slightly.  Add  the  egg  and  shell  and  half  the  cold  water  to  the  coffee. 
Put  into  the  coffeepot,  pour  on  the  boiling  water.  Place  on  front 
of  range  and  boil  slowly  three  to  five  minutes.  Pour  some  of  the  cof- 
fee into  a  cup  to  free  the  spout  from  grounds,  return  to  the  coffee- 
pot, and  repeat.  Add  remaining  cold  water,  which  being  heavier 
than  hot  water  sinks  to  the  bottom  carrying  the  grounds  with  it, 
and  completes  the  process  of  clearing.  Place  on  the  back  of  the 
range,  where  it  will  not  boil,  for  ten  minutes.  Three  eggshells 
may  be  used  in  place  of  1  egg.  For  after-dinner  coffee  use  twice  the 
amount  of  coffee  given  in  this  recipe. 

Filtered  Coffee 

Use  a  French  coffeepot.  Scald  it  with  hot  water.  •  Put  2  round- 
ing tb.  powdered  coffee  in  the  bag  and  pour  over  it  1  pt.  freshly 
boiling  water.  Keep  the  pot  hot  until  the  water  has  filtered  through ; 
pour  it  off  and  turn  back  through  the  filter  again.  Less  tannin 
is  extracted  by  this  method  than  by  boiling. 

Tea.  —  Black  tea  comes  from  China,  India,  and  Ceylon. 
Some  of  the  familiar  brands  are  Oolong,  English  Breakfast, 
Formosa,  and  Orange  Pekoe.  Black  tea  is  made  from  the 
leaves  which  have  been  allowed  to  ferment  by  exposure  to 
the  air  before  curing. 

The  best  green  tea  comes  from  Japan.  Some  of  the  familiar 
brands  are  Gunpowder,  Hyson,  and  Japan.  Green  tea  is 
made  from  young  leaves  of  the  tea  plant,  dried  quickly  by 
artificial  heat.  Both  black  and  green  tea  may  be  made 
from  the  same  plant,  according  to  the  method  of  curing. 

Tea  leaves  are  rich  in  protein,  but  when  taken  as  an  in- 
fusion act  as  a  stimulant  rather  than  a  nutrient.     The  tannic 


WATER  AND  BEVERAGES  121 

acid  developed  from  the  tannin  by  infusion  injures  the  coat- 
ing of  the  stomach.  Tea  should  never  be  boiled  nor  steeped 
for  any  length  of  time,  as  the  tannic  acid  will  be  extracted 
in  greater  amount.  Freshly  boiling  water  should  always  be 
used  to  pour  on  the  tea. 

Tea 

Scald  an  earthen  or  china  teapot.  Put  in  1  ts.  tea  and  pour  over 
it  1  pt.  freshly  boiling  water.  Let  stand  five  minutes  in  a  warm 
place.     Serve  immediately. 

Russian  Tea 

Serve  a  slice  of  lemon  in  each  cup  of  tea  with  sugar  to  taste.  In 
Russia  a  preserved  strawberry  is  added  to  each  cup.  A  clove  and 
a  cherry  may  be  put  in  each  cup  for  afternoon  tea. 

Cocoa  and  Chocolate.  — ;  The  cocoa  tree  is  a  native  of  Mex- 
ico ;  it  also  grows  in  Central  and  South  America  and  the  West 
Indies.  Cocoa  and  chocolate  are  both  prepared  from  the 
seeds  of  the  cocoa  bean.  The  fruit  is  shaped  like  a  large,  thick 
cucumber,  and  contains  from  twenty  to  forty  seeds.  These 
are  roasted  like  coffee.  The  husks  or  shells  are  taken  off 
and  used  in  that  form  as  cocoa  shells.  The  various  prepara- 
tions of  cocoa  are  made  from  the  ground  beans,  from  which 
the  fat  or  oil  has  been  extracted.  Chocolate  contains  a 
larger  proportion  of  fat,  it  is  mixed  with  starch  and  pressed 
into  cakes. 

Chocolate 

1|  sq.  Baker's  chocolate  1  c.  water 

4  tb.  sugar  3  c.  milk 

Add  water  to  the  chocolate  and  stir  over  the  fire  till  it  boils; 

add  sugar  and  milk.     Bring  to  the  boiling  point,  boil  five  minutes, 

whipping  with  an  egg-beater.     Serve. 


122  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Cocoa 

3  tb.  prepared  cocoa  2  c.  boiling  water 

4  tb.  sugar  2  c.  milk 

Mix  sugar  and  cocoa,  and  add  |  c.  of  the  boiling  water  to  make  a 
smooth  paste.  Add  remaining  water  and  let  boil  five  minutes. 
Add  the  milk  and  when  this  is  scalded,  beat  with  an  egg-beater 
for  a  few  minutes  and  serve. 

Note.  —  Interesting  exhibits  of  cocoa  and  chocolate  may  be 
obtained  from  chocolate  manufacturers. 

Cost  of  Cocoa.  —  Measure  the  number  of  teaspoonfuls  of 
cocoa  in  a  box.  Estimate  the  number  of  cups  of  cocoa  it 
will  make  and  the  cost  per  cup,  including  the  milk  used. 
Estimate  the  cost  per  cup  of  chocolate. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

LEAVENING  — BATTERS  AND  DOUGHS 

Methods  of  Making  Mixtures  Light.  —  L    Incorporation  of  Air. 
Physical  change.  —  Air  expands  when  heated. 
Methods:  (a)  By  beating  mixture. 

(b)  By  adding  beaten  eggs. 

2.  Steam. 

Physical  change.  —  Steam  occupies  1600  times  more  space  than 
the  water  which  produced  it. 
Methods:  (a)  Moisture,  as  in  pop-overs. 
(b)  Snow  pancakes. 

3.  Fermentation. 

Chemical  change.  —  CO2  liberated. 
Methods:  (a)  Yeast. 

(6)   Salt-rising  bread. 

4.  Acid  and  Alkali. 

Chemical  change.  —  CO2  liberated. 
Methods:  (a)  Baking  powder. 

(6)  Soda  and  an  acid,  as  cream  of  tartar,  sour 
milk,  molasses. 

Experiment  57.  —  Make  a  solution  of  |  ts.  soda  and  I  c.  water. 
Taste.     Test  with  litmus  paper. 

Name  some  of  the  properties  of  an  alkali.  Test  various  washing 
powders  with  litmus  paper.     Are  they  alkalies  ? 

Experiment  58.  —  Make  a  solution  of  1  slightly  rounding  ts. 
of  cream  of  tartar  and  j  c.  water.  Taste.  Test  with  litmus  paper. 
Name  some  of  the  properties  of  an  acid.  Test  lemon,  vinegar, 
molasses,  etc.,  with  htmus  paper.     Are  they  acids  or  alkalies  ? 

123 


124  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Experiment  59.  —  Put  solutions  of  experiments  57  and  58 
together.  What  causes  the  effervescence  ?  Taste.  Test  with  Ht- 
mus  paper.  What  effect  have  the  acid  and  alkali  had  on  each  other  ? 
Is  the  result  acid  or  alkaline?  What  causes  the  salty  taste? 
What  is  formed  by  the  union  of  an  acid  and  alkah  ? 

Experiment  60.  —  Make  a  solution  of  alum  and  water.  Taste. 
Test  with  litmus  paper.  Has  the  alum  an  acid  or  alkaline  reaction  ? 
Is  it  substituted  for  the  cream  of  tartar  or  for  the  soda  in  baking 
powder?  Add  soda  to  the  alum  solution;  what  is  the  result? 
What  effect  did  it  have  upon  the  tongue?  Is  alum  a  healthful 
ingredient  in  baking  powder? 

Experiment  61.  —  Test  sour  milk  with  litmus  paper.  Is  it 
acid  or  alkaline  ?  Add  a  little  soda ;  what  is  the  result  ?  Repeat 
with  molasses,  brown  sugar,  chocolate. 

Experiment  62.  —  Mix  baking  powder  with  water;  what  is 
the,  result?  Warm  gently.  Is  the  chemical  action  increased  by 
heat?  Test  with  litmus  paper.  Is  the  reaction  either  acid  or 
alkaline?  Taste.  What  has  been  formed  by  the  union  of  soda 
and  the  acid  ? 

Experiment  63.  —  Pass  the  gas  given  off  when  soda  and  cream 
of  tartar  solutions  are  put  together  through  limewater ;  what  gas 
is  formed  ?  Test  the  gas  given  off  when  baking  powder  is  moistened 
with  water.  What  gas  is  generated  when  an  acid  is  added  to  bicar- 
bonate of  soda  ? 

Baking  Powders.  —  Baking  powder  ~  is  composed  of  bi- 
carbonate of  sodium,  NaHC02,  which  has  in  its  composi- 
tion carbon  dioxide  and  some  acid.  When  the  mixture  is 
wet,  the  acid  serves  to  liberate  the  carbon  dioxide  from 
the  sodium  bicarbonate.  In  order  to  keep  those  materials 
dry  and  to  prevent  chemical  action  from  taking  place  before 
they  are  used,  starch  is  added  and  is  called  a  "  filler." 
In  cheap  baking  powders  the  starch  is  added  in  very 
large  amounts.  The  value  of  a  baking  powder  depends 
upon  the  amount  of   gas   it   gives  off.      Its   healthfulness 


LEAVENING  — BATTERS   AND   DOUGHS  125 

(h^pends  u])on  its   freedom   from   injurious   residue    left    in 
the  food. 

There  are  three  chisses  (jf  baking  powder  upon  the  market : 

1.  Cream  of  Tartar. 

2.  Phosphate. 

3.  Alum. 

Cream  of  tartar  is  potassium  acid  tartrate,  KHC4H4O6. 
It  is  prepared  from  the  argols  which  collect  on  the  inside  of 
wine  casks.  These  are  then  refined  and  purified  and  known 
as  cream  of  tartar. 

The  chemical  reaction  of  cream  of  tartar  baking  powder 
is  as  follows : 

potassium  acid  +  bicarbonate  =     Rochelle      +  carbon  +  water 
tartrate  of  sodium  salt  dioxide 

HKH4C4O6      +    NaHCOs     =  KNaG4H406  +     CO2     +    H2O 

There  is  left  as  a  residue  in  a  loaf  of  bread  made  from 
baking  powder  more  Rochelle  salt  than  is  found  in  a  Seidlitz 
powder ;  but  the  amount  eaten  at  any  one  time  is  so  small 
as  to  have  very  little  physiological  effect. 

Cream  of  tartar  is  expensive,  so  cheaper  forms  of  acid  are 
often  used  in  baking  powders. 

Phosphate  Baking  Powders.  —  The  acid  used  is  phosphoric 
acid,  which  is  obtained  by  .the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  on 
ground  bone.  The  phosphate  probably  has  little  power  to 
furnish  phosphate  to  the  body,  not  being  in  a  form  in  which 
the  body  can  assimilate  it. 

Alum  Baking  Powders.  —  These  are  the  most  objection- 
able forms  of  baking  powders,  as  their  residue  has  an  irri- 
tating effect  upon  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  digestive 
organs.  They  are  very  cheap  powders,  so,  unfortunately, 
they  are  extensively  used. 


126  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Bicarbonate  of  sodium  is  obtained  from  common  salt,  is 
a  very  cheap  product,  and,  therefore,  is  not  adulterated. 

Proportions  of  acid  and  alkalies  to  he  used  in  cooking : 

1  ts.  soda  and  2  slightly  rounding  ts.  of  cream  of  tartar  for  1  qt. 

flour. 

2  ts.  baking  powder  for  each  c.  flour. 
1  ts.  soda  for  1  pt.  thick  sour  milk. 

1  ts.  soda  to  1  c.  molasses  for  batters. 

I  ts.  soda  to  1  c.  molasses  for  a  stiff  dough. 

Baking  powder  may  be  substituted  for  cream  of  tartar 
and  soda,  in  the  proportion  of  2  level  ts.  for  each  c.  flour  or 
meal. 

Reduce  the  amount  of  baking  powder  by  f  ts.  for  each 
egg  added  to  the  mixture. 

Batters  and  Doughs.  —  A  batter  is  a  mixture  of  flour  and 
some,  liquid. 

A  thin  hatter  is  made  in  the  proportion  of  1  scant  measure 
of  liquid  to  1  full  measure  of  flour. 

A  drop  hatter  or  muffin  mixture  is  in  proportion  of  1  scant 
measure  of  liquid  to  2  full  measures  of  flour. 

A  dough  is  1  measure  of  liquid  to  3  scant  measures  of 
flour. 

A  sponge  is  a  drop  batter  to  which  yeast  is  added. 

Construction  rule  for  hakmg  powder  mixtures: 

2  c.  flour  or  1  c.  white  and  1  c.  rye,  graham,  etc. 
'   4  ts.  baking  powder ;   reduce  ^  ts.  for  each  egg  added. 
^  ts.  salt. 

1  to  4  tb.  shortening. 
1  scant  c.  milk. 
1  or  2  eggs,  if  desired. 
1  to  4  tb.  sugar. 


LEAVENI NG  —  BATTERS   AND   DOUGHS  127 

Baking  Powder  Biscuit 

2  c.  flour  2  tb.  lard  or  butter 

4  ts.  baking  powder  1  scant  c.  milk 

^  ts.  salt 
Mix  and  sift  dry  ingredients.     Work  in  lard  with  tips  of  fingers ; 
add  the  milk  gradually  to  form  a  soft  dough,  mixing  with  a  knife. 
Toss  on  a  floured  board,  roll  lightly  to  f  inch  thickness.     Cut  in 
rounds.     Bake  in  a  very  hot  oven  12  to  15  minutes. 
For  shortcake  use  4  tb.  shortening. 

Scones 

Make  as  baking  powder  biscuit,  using  4  tb.  shortening,  and  add- 
ing 1  beaten  egg  to  the  milk.  Roll  dough  thin,  cut,  brush  the  top 
of  each  scone  with  a  little  melted  butter,  and  sprinkle  with  sugar 
and  cinnamon.  Put  a  piece  of  citron  or  candied  orange  peel  in 
center,  and  bake. 

Dutch  Apple  Cake 

2  c.  flour  I  c.  butter 

^  ts.  salt  1  egg 

3^  ts.  baking  powder  1  scant  c.  milk 
2  sour  apples 
Mix  dry  ingredients,  rub  in  the  butter,  add  milk  and  beaten 
egg.  Spread  ^  inch  thick  on  a  shallow  pan.  Pare  and  cut  apples 
in  sections  lengthwise;  lay  in  rows  on  the  dough  with  the  sharp 
edge  pressed  lightly  into  the  dough.  Sprinkle  the  top  with  2  tb. 
sugar  and  |  ts.  cinnamon.  Bake  in  a  hot  oven  25  to  30  minutes. 
Serve  hot,  with  lemon  sauce  or  with  butter. 

Lemon  Sauce 

2  c.  hot  water  Grated  rind  and  juice  of  1  lemon 

1  c.  sugar  2  tb.  butter 

3  tb.  cornstarch 
Mix  the  cornstarch  and  sugar.     Stir  slowly  into  the  boiling 
water.     Cook  10  minutes.     Add  the  lemon  and  butter.     Serve. 


128  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Pin-wheel  Biscuit 

2  c.  flour  2  tb.  lard 

4  ts.  baking  powder  \  c.  stoned  raisins 

\  ts.  salt  2  tb.  chopped  citron 

2  tb.  sugar  .^  ts.  cinnamon 

Mix  as  a  baking  powder  biscuit  dough.  Roll  \  inch  thick. 
Brush  with  melted  butter,  sprinkle  with  the  raisins  cut  fine,  citron, 
sugar,  and  cinnamon.  Roll  like  a  jelly  rolL  Cut  in  slices  1  inch 
thick.  Bake  in  a  hot  oven  15  minutes.  Currants  may  be  used  in 
place  of  raisins  and  citron. 

Orange  Shortcake 

Make  a  baking  powder  biscuit  dough.  Roll  into  a  cake  f  inch 
thick  and  bake  in  a  quick  oven.  Split  carefully.  Spread  with 
butter.  Spread  with  oranges  cut  in  small  pieces  and  sweetened. 
Put  another  layer  of  oranges  on  top  of  the  cake  or  sprinkle  top  with 
powdered  sugar. 

Corn  Bread 

1  c.  corn  meal  |  c.  sugar 

1  c.  flour  1  egg 

3^  ts.  baking  powder  1  c.  milk 

^  ts.  salt  2  tb.  melted  butter 

Mix  the  dry  ingredients,  add  milk,  beaten  egg,  and  butter. 
Beat  well.  Bake  in  a  shallow  pan  in  a  quick  oven  twenty  minutes. 
Serve  hot. 

Corn  Meal  Muffins 
Mix  as  corn  bread,  baking  in  muffin  pans  25  minutes. 

Graham  Gems 

1  c.  graham  flour  2  tb.  butter,  melted 

1  c.  flour  \  c.  molasses 

1  c.  sour  milk  |  ts.  soda 

I  ts.  salt 
Mix  and  sift  dry  ingredients;    add  milk  to  molasses,  combine 
mixtures,  and  bake  in  hot  muffin  pans  25  to  30  minutes. 


LEAVENING  — BATTERS  AND   DOUGHS  129 

Rice  Muffins 

3  c,  flour  2  tb.  sugar 
^  ts.  salt  1  pt.  milk 

5  ts.  baking  powder  ^  c.  cooked  rice 

2  eggs  2  tb.  butter 

Mix  and  sift  dry  ingredients.  Add  milk  to  beaten  eggs;  stir 
into  the  mixture,  beat  well,  and  bake  in  hot,  greased  muffin  pans 
25  minutes. 

Nut  Bread 

4  c.  flour  1  ts.  salt 

7  ts.  baking  powder  f  c.  brown  sugar 

Mix  well  together  and  add  1^  c.  milk,  to  which  has  been  added 
1  well  beaten  egg.  Add  1  c.  chopped  nut  meats.  Bake  in  a  greased 
brick  loaf  pan  f  hour. 

Brown  Nut  Bread 

^  c.  molasses  1  ts.  salt 

1  ts.  soda  1  ts.  cream  of  tartar 

2  c.  milk  ^  c.  sugar 

2  c.  graham  flour  1  c.  nuts,  chopped 

1^  c.  white  flour 
.  Add  the  soda  to  the  molasses  and  beat  until  it  foams.     Add 
milk,  then  the  dry  ingredients  mixed  together.     Add  the  nuts. 
Fill  pound  baking  powder  cans,  greased,  one  half  full,  cover,  let 
rise  one  half  hour ;   bake  f  hour  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Boston  Brown  Bread 

1  c.  rye  meal  2  c.  sour  milk 

1  c.  corn  meal  2  ts.  soda 

1  c.  graham  flour  .  1  ts.  salt 

f  c.  molasses 
Mix  and  sift  dry  ingredients,  add  molasses  and  milk,  beat  well, 
put  into  well-buttered  molds,  and  steam  4  or  5  hours.  The  cover 
should  be  buttered.  Never  fill  the  mold  more  than  two  thirds 
full.  Baking  powder  cans  or  lard  pails  may  be  used  for  molds. 
Bake  |  hour  after  taking  from  steamer. 

K 


130  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Pop-overs 

1  c,  flour  1  ssp.  salt 

1  c.  milk  (scant)  1  egg 

Add  milk  slowly  to  salt  and  flour  till  a  smooth  paste  is  formed. 
Add  remainder  of  milk  and  the  egg.  Beat  the  mixture  well  and 
bake  in  hot  gem  pans,  filling  them  two  thirds  full.  Bake  30  minutes. 
Have  the  oven  very  hot  at  first  and  then  reduce  temperature.  If 
removed  from  the  oven  before  they  are  thoroughly  baked,  they 
wiU  fall. 

Gingerbread 
^  c.  lard  3  c.  flour 

Yolks  of  1  or  2  eggs  1  ts.  soda 

I  c.  milk  '  2  ts.  ginger 

1^  c.  molasses         .  |  ts.  salt 

Whites  of  2  eggs 
Mix  in  the  order  given,  sifting  the  dry  ingredients  together,  and 
folding  in  the  beaten  whites  last.     Bake  in  a  moderate  oven  45 
minutes.     Mixtures  which  contain  molasses  burn  easily,  so  should 
be  baked  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Griddle  Cakes 

The  griddle  for  baking  cakes  should  be  perfectly  clean  and 
smooth.  If  1  or  2  tb.  of  melted  shortening  is  added  to  the  batter, 
the  cakes  may  be  cooked  without  using  grease  of  any  kind  on  the 
griddle.  If  grease  is  used,  take  a  piece  of  salt  pork,  or  tie  a  cloth 
on  a  short  stick  or  fork,  and  grease  with  drippings  or  lard.  Never 
leave  pools  of  fat  on  the  edge  of  the  griddle  to  burn.  Wipe  off  the 
griddle  with  a  cloth  after  each  baking. 

Sour  Milk  Griddle  Cakes 

2|  c.  flour  2  c.  sour  milk 

I  ts.  salt  1  egg 

1  ts.  soda 
Sift  dry  ingredients ;  add  sour  milk  and  well-beaten  egg.     Drop 
by  spoonfuls  on  a  hot  greased  griddle.     When  full  of  bubbles,  turn 
and  bake  the  other  side. 


LEAVENING  — BATTERS   AND   DOUGHS  131 

Bread  Griddle  Cakes 

1  i)t.  stale  bread  crumbs  1  pt.  milk,  scalded 

2  tb.  butter 
Pour  the  hot  milk  over  the  crumbs  and  butter  and  soak  till  soft. 
Add  1  beaten  egg,  1  c.  flour,  ^  ts.  salt,  2  ts.  baking  powder.     Cold 
milk  to  thin  if  necessary.     Bake  on  a  hot  griddle. 

Waffles 

1  pt.  flour  2  eggs 

3  ts.  baking  powder  H  c.  milk 

I  ts.  salt  2  tb.  butter,  melted 

Mix  in  order  given,  adding  milk  with  the  beaten  yolks,  then 
butter,  and  last  fold  in  the  beaten  whites.     Bake  in  hot  waffle  pans. 

Caramel  Syrup 

Melt  1  c.  granulated  sugar  till  a  light  brown,  but  do  not  let  it 
burn.  Add  1  c.  boiling  water  and  simmer  10  minutes.  Serve  with 
waffles  or  hot  cakes. 

Sugar  Syrup 

1  c.  sugar  f  c.  water 

Boil  together  slowly  for  10  minutes  and  serve  with  hot  cakes. 
One  tb.  lemon  juice  may  be  added. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

BREADS 

Note.  —  Student  write  a  paper  giving  the  history  of  bread 
making ;  varieties  of  bread  used  by  different  nations ;  primitive 
and  modern  methods  of  milling ;  commercial  importance  of  wheat, 
of  flour,  and  of  the  different  cereals  used  for  bread  making ;  world's 
production  of  wheat. 

Section  of  Grain  of  Wheat 


(a)    Skins  and  testa  (bran).  {d)   Endosperm. 

(6)    Membrane  (bran).  (e)    Cerealin  or  aleurone  layer. 

(c)    Embryo.  (/)  Scutellum. 

Wheat.  —  The  wheat  plant  belongs  to  the  grass  family. 
The  part  that  is  used  for  food  is  the  fruit  or  seed.  This 
consists  of  three  parts : 

(1)  The  germ,  or  embryo,  which  is  the  part  of  the  seed 
that  reproduces.  It  is  composed  of  cellulose,  protein, 
sugar,  and  a  large  proportion  of  fat. 

(2)  The  kernel,  or  endosperm,  which  is  the  central  part  of 
the  grain.  It  consists  of  a  cellular  structure,  which  holds 
the  starch  granules,  some  protein,  and  sugar. 

132 


BREADS  133 

(3)  The  bran  or  outer  covering,  which  is  composed  largely 
of  cellulose  and  mineral  matter,  and  contains  a  pigment  or 
coloring  matter.  The  bran  forms  a  protective  covering  for 
the  wheat  grain  and  is  made  up  of  six  layers.  The  five  outer 
layers  contain  little  but  cellulose  and  mineral  matter,  but 
the  innermost  layer  consists  of  rectangular  cells  filled  with  a 
protein  called  cerealin,  or  aleurone,  and  is  the  part  of  the 
grain  which  is  richest  in  protein. 

In  the  early  methods  of  milling,  this  layer  was  removed 
with  the  bran,  but  thfe  modern  methods  make  it  possible  to 
separate  the  outer  bran  layer,  retaining  the  aleurone  layer, 
thus  making  what  is  known  as  entire  wheat  flour. 

Graham  flour  is  made  by  grinding  all  of  the  wheat  with 
the  exception  of  the  embryo.  It  thus  contains  the  bran. 
It  is  useful  when  coarse  food  is  needed  to  stimulate  the  action 
of  the  large  intestine  to  prevent  constipation.  The  bran 
itself  may  be  made  into  cookies,  etc.,  and  eaten  for  this 
purpose. 

Protein  in  Wheat.  —  Wheat  is  the  most  important  grain 
used  for  bread  making  on  account  of  the  physical  properties 
of  two  of  its  proteins,  called  gliadin  and  glutenin.  When 
mixed  with  water,  these  substances  unite  to  form  gluten. 
Gluten  has  the  power  of  absorbing  nearly  three  times  its 
weight  of  water  and  forming  a  tough,  sticky,  elastic  mass. 
When  carbon  dioxide  is  produced  in  dough,  it  seeks  to 
escape,  but  is  retained  by  the  expansion  of  the  elastic  gluten, 
thus  causing  the  dough  to  rise. 

Wheat  is  known  as  spring  wheat  and  winter  wheat.  The 
spring  wheat  is  planted  in  the  spring  and  ripens  or  matures 
in  the  late  summer.  It  is  grown  mainly  in  the  northwestern 
parts  of  the  United  States  and  in  the  Canadian  Northwest. 
The  flour  made  from  spring  wheat  is  the  best  for  bread 
making  and  for  aU  forms  of  yeast  mixtures. 


134  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Winter  wheat  is  planted  in  the  fall  and  it  ripens  in  the 
early  summer.  It  is  grown  in  the  sections  of  the  country 
where  the  winters  are  less  severe  than  in  the  Northwest,  — 
in  Ohio,  Michigan,  Indiana,  etc.,  and  in  more  southern  lati- 
tudes. It  is  a  softer  wheat  than  spring  wheat  and  makes  a 
whiter  flour,  which  is  used  for  cakes,  pastry,  etc. 

Note.  —  (a)  Plant  wheat  in  wet  cotton,  keeping  it  moist  until 
the  wheat  plant  grows.  Note  changes  from  time  to  time  in  the 
appearance  of  the  wheat.  Student  write  description  of  the  sprout- 
ing of  the  wheat  grain,  using  any  standard  botany  for  reference. 

(6)  Examine  a  section  of  wheat  under  the  microscope,  noting 
bran  coats,  aleurone  layer,  endosperm,  and  embryo.  Stain  a  sec- 
tion of  the  wheat  with  iodine,  which  will  turn  the  starch  purple 
and  the  protein  yellow.  Make  drawing  of  a  section  of  wheat. 
Why  has  nature  stored  so  niany  food  principles  in  this  little  grain 
of  wheat  ? 

(c)  Examine  winter  wheat  and  spring  wheat  flour,  whole  wheat 
flour,  graham  flour.  Sift  and  examine  the  residue,  if  any,  in  the 
sieve.     Compare  color,  texture,  cohesion  (press  in  hand). 

To  determine  the  composition  of  wheat  flour. 

Experiment  64.  —  Make  a  small  amount  of  flour  into  a  stiff 
dough.  Put  into  a  piece  of  fine  cheesecloth  and  knead  in  a  bowl 
of  cold  water  until  only  a  sticky  mass  is  left  in  the  cloth.  Collect 
this.  Note  its  physical  properties.  Work  with  the  fingers  for 
some  minutes.  Does  the  gluten  become  more  elastic  with  knead- 
ing? Give  one  reason  for  kneading  bread  dough.  Form  part 
of  the  gluten  into  a  ball  and  bake.  What  is  the  effect  of  heat 
upon  it? 

Experiment  65.  —  Test  some  of  the  gluten  from  the  above  ex- 
periment to  see  if  it  is  protein  ?  starch  ?  sugar  ?  See  identification 
test  for  protein,  page  69;  for  starch,  page  21 ;  for  sugar,  page  44. 

Experiment  66.  —  Boil  some  of  the  water  in  which  the  flour 
from  experiment  64  was  washed.     Cool  and  test  for  starch. 

Experiment  67.  —  Let  starch  settle  to  bottom  of  the  bowl  in 
cup.     Remove  some  of  the  clear  top  liquid  and  test  for  sugar. 


BREADS 


135 


Experiment  68. —  (To  l)e  porforimMl  l)y  the  teacher.)  Mix 
a  little  dry  flour  with  ether,  chloroform,  or  benzine.  Filter,  let- 
ting the  filtrate  drop  on  clean  glass.  Let  the  liquid  evaporate. 
What  is  left  on  the  glass  ? 

Caution. — The  fumes  of  chloroform,  ether,  and  benzine  are  very 
inflammable.     Do  not  use  with  fire  or  light  burning  in  the  room. 

ExpERiMiENT  69.  —  Burn  a  little  flour  in  a  porcelain  crucible  for 
several  hours,  or  until  only  a  white  ash  is  left.  What  part  of  the 
flour  is  this  ? 

Yeast.  —  (Review  plant  classification,  page  50.) 


Yeast  Plant  (magnified),  showing  method  of  reproduction. 

Yeast  is  a  single-celled,  plant  that  grows  by  budding, 
and  requires  sugar,  some  protein,  and  mineral  matter  for  its 
nourishment.  It  is  found  floating  in  the  air  and  settles  on 
substances  rich  in  sugar,  where  it  grows  and  causes  a  chemi- 
cal change  in  the  substance  upon  which  it  is  feeding,  called 
fermentation.     This  is  the  change  which  takes  place  when 


136  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

grape  juice  is  changed  to  wine,  when  cider  becomes  "  hard," 
or  when  "  salt  rising  "  bread  is  made. 

Yeast  is  obtained  in  a  pure  form  for  commercial  purposes 
from  distilleries  or  breweries.  The  top  j^east  which  floats 
on  the  surface  of  the  fermenting  liquid,  or  wort,  is  skimmed 
off  and  its  impurities  removed.  It  is  then  mixed  with  some 
starch,  pressed,  cut  into  cakes,  wrapped  in  tin  foil,  and  sold 
as  "  compressed  "  yeast.  When  mixed  with  corn  meal  and 
dried,  it  is  sold  as  '^  dry  yeast."  The  yeast  cells  of  dry  yeast 
are  not  as  active  as  those  of  compressed  yeast  and  take  longer 
to  raise  bread. 

Fermentation  is  a  chemical  change  in  aii  organic  substance, 
caused  by  the  growth  within  that  substance  of  some  ferment, 
as  3^east.  There  are  different  varieties  of  ferments,  each  of 
which  causes  a  different  form  of  fermentation  to  take  place. 

Alcoholic  fermentation  is  caused  by  the  growing  of  the 
yeast  plant,  which  feeds  upon  sugar,  changing  it  to  alcohol 
and  carbon  dioxide.  This  is  the  fermentation  that  takes 
place  in  bread  making. 

Acetic  fermentation  is  caused  by  a  ferment  which  changes 
the  alcohol  formed  during  alcoholic  fermentation  into 
acetic  acid. 

It  occurs  when  alcoholic  fermentation  is  allowed  to  go  on 
for  too  great  a  length  of  time,  or  when  the  mixture  is  raised 
to  a  temperature  above  90°  F.,  as  wheii  hard  cider  turns  to 
vinegar  or  bread  dough  sours. 

Lactic  fermentation  is  the  change  that  takes  place  when 
milk  sours.  The  lactic  bacillus  feeds  upon  the  sugar  of  the 
milk  and  changes  it  to  lactic  acid  ;  this  acid  causes  the  casein 
to  coagulate  and  the  milk  is  ''  sour." 

When  milk  is  used  for  bread  dough,  it  should  be  scalded 
to  destroy  the  lactic  bacilli,  thus  preventing  souring  of  the 
milk  during  the  rising,  which  might  cause  sour  bread. 


BREADS  137 

Chemical  reactions  in  bread  making : 

dextrose 
starch  water      or  sugar 

CeHioOs  +  a  ferment  +  H2O  =  CeHisOe 

carbon 

Alcoholic  fermentation:  alcohol  dioxidc 

CeHioOe  +  yeast  =  2  C2H5OH  +  2  CO2 

Acetic  fermentation  : 

alcohol      oxygen  acetic  acid         water 

2  C2H5OH  +  4  0  +  a  ferment  =    2  CH3COOH  +  2  H2O 

Experiments  with  yeast. 

Experiment  70.  —  Mix  a  small  amount  of  yeast  with  water. 

(a)  Put  a  drop  on  a  glass  slide,  cover  with  a  glass,  and  examine 
under  the  microscope,  first  with  a  low  power  and  then  with  a  high 
power.     Make  a  drawing. 

(&)  Stain  the  slide  with  a  little  iodine  and  examine  again.  What 
color  do  the  yeast  cells  become  when  they  are  stained  with 
iodine  ?  The  starch  cells  ?  What  kind  of  starch  was  used  in  the 
yeast  cake  ? 

Experiment  71.  —  Make  a  solution  of  glucose  and  water,  or 
molasses  and  water.  Add  some  yeast.  Let  stand  an  hour  or  two 
in  a  warm  place.  Examine  a  drop  under  the  microscope.  How 
does  the  yeast  cell  reproduce  ? 

Experiment  72.  —  Make  a  solution  of  glucose  and  water. 
Add  some  yeast.     Put  equal  amounts  in  three  test  tubes. 

(a)  Boil  the  contents  of  one  tube. 

(6)  Put  one  tube  in  a  cold  place  or  on  ice. 

(c)  Keep  one  tube  at  temperature  of  80°  F.  At  the  end  of  an 
hour  or  two,  examine  the  contents  of  the  tubes,  noting  any  fermen- 
tation that  may  have  occurred.  Draw  conclusions  as  to  the  best 
temperature  for  the  growing  of  the  yeast  plant. 

Warm  (6)  to  a  temperature  of  80°  F.  and  let  stand  for  an  hour 
or  two.  Does  cold  destroy  the  life  of  the  yeast?  Does  boiling 
destroy  it? 


138  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Experiment  73.  —  Put  a  solution  of  glucose,  water,  and  yeast 
in  a  flask.  Keep  it  warm  until  it  ferments.  Pass  the  gas  through 
limewater.  What  change  occurs  in  the  limewater  ?  What  gas  is 
given  off  during  alcoholic  fermentation  ? 

Proportion  of  ingredients  in  bread  making. 

To  every  quart  of  wetting  (milk  and  water)  use : 

1  cake  yeast  dissolved  in  J  c.  lukewarm  water, 
or  1  c.  liquid  yeast. 

2  ts.  salt. 

2  tb.  or  more  of  sugar. 

In  white  bread  use  just  enough  sugar  to  replace  the  sugar  of  the 
flour  lost  during  alcoholic  fermentation ;  in  other  breads  use  sugar 
as  desired  for  a  flavor. - 

Two  tb.  shortening  (lard  or  butter). 

The  amount  of  shortening  may  be  increased  for  rolls  or  when 
a  rich  fancy  dough  is  desired.  For  simple  breads  shortening 
may  be  omitted  entirely. 

Flour  to  form  a  soft  dough. 

If  spring  wheat  flour  is  used,  a  smaller  quantity  will  be  required 
than  would  be  needed  of  winter  wheat.  From  two  and  a  half 
to  three  times  as  much  flour  as  liquid  should  be  used,  which  in- 
cludes the  flour  used  on  the  board  in  kneading.  With  dark- 
colored  flour,  use  about  one-third  white  flour  and  the  remainder 
dark  flour.  Doughs  made  with  graham  or  entire  wheat  flour, 
which  contain  a  large  amount  of  gluten,  are  not  made  stiff 
enough  to  knead,  but  are  well  beaten  with  a  spoon  before  being 
put  to  rise. 

Kneading.  —  Bread  is  kneaded  twice,  the  first  time  to 
incorporate  the  ingredients  thoroughly,  thus  insuring  an 
even  texture,  and  also  to  make  the  gluten  elastic  so  as  to 
retain  the  carbon  dioxide  formed  during  fermentation.  It 
should  be  kneaded  until  smooth  and  elastic,  and  until  little 


BREADS  139 

blisters  may  be  seen  on  the  surface  of  the  dough.  After  the 
bread  has  risen  until  it  is  about  double  in  size,  it  is  kneaded 
again,  but  very  lightly,  the  object  being  to  break  the  large 
bubbles  of  CO2  present,  in  order  that  the  loaf  may  be  jfine- 
grained  and  to  form  the  dough  into  the  desired  shape  with- 
out losing  its  lightness.  It  is  then  placed  in  the  pan  to  rise 
until  light  enough  to  bake. 

Baking  of  Bread.  —  Bread  is  baked 

(1)  To  kill  the  yeast  plant. 

(2)  To  hydrolize  the  starch  granules. 

(3)  To  soften  the  cellulose. 

(4)  To  drive  off  the  alcohol,  CO2,  and  excess  of  moisture. 

(5)  To  dextrinize  the  starch,  thus  forming  a  crust  of  sweet, 
agreeable  flavor. 

All  bread  should  be  thoroughly  baked.  If  there  is  any 
doubt  as  to  its  being  done,  let  it  continue  baking,  as  long 
baking  makes  it  wholesome.  The  oven  should  be  hot 
enough  to  turn  a  piece  of  paper  a  light  brown  in  five  minutes. 
After  placing  the  loaf  in  the  oven,  increase  the  heat  gradually 
for  ten  minutes,  then  decrease  slowly  until  the  end  of  the 
baking.  The  oven  should  turn  a  piece  of  paper  a  dark 
brown  in  five  minutes  when  rolls  are  to  be  baked. 

Raw  Potato  Yeast 

I  c.  flour  1  to  2  qts.  boiling  water 

J  c.  sugar  1  cake  compressed  yeast 

1  tb.  salt  or  1  c.  liquid  yeast 

3  raw  potatoes 
Pare  potatoes  and  keep  in  cold  water.  Mix  flour,  sugar,  and 
salt  in  a  large  bowl,  and  grate  the  potato  in  as  quickly  as  possible. 
Mix  at  once  with  wooden  spoon.  Pour  the  boiling  water  directly 
from  the  teakettle,  stirring  constantly  and  adding  enough  water 
to  make  the  mixture  the  consistency  of  thin  starch.     If  it  does 


140  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

not  thicken,  bring  the  mixture  to  the  boihng  point.  Strain,  and  let 
cool.  When  lukewarm  add  yeast ;  if  compressed,  dissolve  in  1  c. 
water.  Keep  mixture  in  warm  (not  hot)  place  till  light.  Beat 
well  several  times.  At  the  end  of  24  hours,  put  in  earthen  or  glass 
jars,  cover  tightly,  and  put  in  a  cool  place.  This  will  keep  two 
weeks.    Save  the  last  cupful  to  start  fresh  yeast. 

White  Bread 

1  pt.  milk  2  tb.  sugar 

2  tb.  lard  2  ts.  salt 

Put  into  a  bowl  and  pour  on  them  1  pt.  boihng  water.  When 
lukewarm,  add  1  cake  yeast  dissolved  in  |  c.  lukewarm  water,  or  1 
c.  hquid  yeast.  Add  flour  to  make  a  soft  dough.  Knead  on  a 
floured  board.  P-ut  into  a  greased  bowl  to  rise,  greasing  the  top 
of  the  dough  to  prevent  a  crust  forming.  Cover  closely  and  let 
rise  until  it  doubles  in  size,  keeping  the  dough  at  a  temperature  of 
from  80°  to  85°  F.  Knead  again  and  shape  into  loaves.  Let  rise 
in  the  pan  from  |  to  f  hours.  It  should  not  quite  double  in  size. 
Bake  50  or  60  minutes,  or  until  the  loaf  is  a  rich  brown  and  emits 
a  hollow  sound  when  tapped  on  the  bottom.  Brush  the  loaf  with 
milk.  Let  stand  exposed  to  the  air  on  all  sides  to  allow  the  steam 
to  escape.  Put  it  into  a  freshly  scalded  bread  jar,  cover,  but  do 
not  wrap  in  a  cloth. 

Parker  House  Rolls 

1  pt.  milk  scalded  2  tb.  ^ugar 

2  tb.  butter  1  ts.  salt 

When  lukewarm,  add  |  cake  yeast  dissolved  in  ^  c.  water.  Add 
flour  to  make  a  batter.  Beat  well.  Add  1  beaten  egg,  and  flour 
to  make  a  dough.  Knead  and  let  rise  till  light.  Shape  into  rolls, 
handling  the  dough  as  little  as  possible.  Let  rise  in  the  pan  about 
1  hour  or  until  very  light.  Bake  in  a  quick  oven  20  minutes. 
Brush  with  milk  or  butter.     The  egg  may  be  omitted. 

Rolls  may  also  be  made  from  bread  dough.  They  take  their 
name  from  the  different  forms  in  which  they  are  shaped. 


BREADS  141 

Entire  Wheat  Bread 

1  pt.  milk  scalded  {  c.  sugar 

I  ts.  salt  or  ^  c.  molasses 

When  lukewarm,  add  ^  cake  yeast  dissolved  in  |  c.  water. 
Add  4 1  c.  entire  wheat  flour  or  enough  to  make  a  soft  dough. 
Beat  well,  cover,  and  let  rise  until  it  doubles  in  size.  Beat  down 
and  pour  into  greased  bread  pans.  Let  rise  till  light  and  bake  1 
hour  in  a  moderate  oven.  It  should  not  quite  double  in  bulk  during 
the  last  rising. 

Graham  Bread 

1  pt.  milk  scalded  ^  cake  yeast  dissolved  in  -|  c. 

4  tb.  sugar  water 

1  ts.  salt  2  c.  white  flour 

3  to  3|  c.  sifted  Graham  flour 
Mix  in  the  order  given  into  a  dough  a  little  softer  than  for  white 
bread.  Beat  well,  let  rise  till  Hght  or  till  it  doubles  in  size.  Stir 
down.  Pour  into  greased  pans,  let  rise  f  hour,  and  bake  a  little 
longer  and  in  a  more  moderate  oven  than  for  white  bread.  Whole 
wheat  may  be  used  in  place  of  Graham  flour. 

Rye  Bread 

1  pt.  scalded  milk  |    cake   compressed   yeast   dis- 

2  tb.  butter  solved  in  I  c.  water 
2  tb.  sugar                               2  c.  white  flour 

1  ts.  salt  Rye   flour  till   stiff  enough  to 

knead 
Mix  in  the  order  given,  knead,  let  rise  till  light,  and  double  in 
size,  knead  lightly,  shape  into  loaves.     Let  rise  in  the  pan  till  light, 
bake  in  a  moderate  oven  for  1  hour. 

Oatmeal  Bread 

2  c.  oatmeal  i  c.  sugar 

3  c.  boiling  water  1   cake   compressed  yeast   dis- 
1  tb.  lard  solved  in  1  c.  water 

1|  ts.  salt  Flour  to  make  dough 


142  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Scald  oatmeal  with  boiling  water,  add  lard,  sugar,  and  salt,  and 
when  lukewarm  the  dissolved  yeast.  Add  flour  to  make  a  dough 
stiff  enough  so  that  the  spoon  will  stand  upright  in  it.  Beat  well 
as  the  flour  is  added.  Let  rise  2  to  3  hours  or  until  it  doubles  in 
size.  Beat  down,  put  into  greased  bread  pans,  let  rise  about  ^ 
hour  or  until  light.     Bake  1  hour  in  a  moderate  oven. 

To  Ascertain  the  Cost  of  Bread  : 

Price  of  pastry  flour  (winter  wheat) 

Price  of  bread  flour  (spring  wheat) . 

Price  of  bread  flour  per  pound    ......... 

Number  of  pounds  required  to  make  recipe  for  white  bread 

Cost  of  other  ingredients 

Total  cost 

Number  of  loaves  made 

Cost  per  loaf 

Weight  of  loaf 

Cost  per  loaf  of  baker's  bread 

Weight  of  loaf  of  baker's  bread  . , 


CHAPTER  XV 
FATS  — FRYING,  AND  PASTRY 

Sources  of  fat. 

1.  Adipose  tissue  of  animals,  as  beef  fat,  suet,  etc. 

2.  Bone  marrow. 

3.  Milk.  Fat  globules  are  held  in  suspension  in  the  milk  serum. 
(See  Milk,  page  108.) 

4.  Some  vegetables.  Some  vegetables  contain  a  small  amount 
of  fat,  but  they  do  not  form  an  important  source  of  fat  in  the 
diet. 

5.  Some  fruits  and  seeds.  The  olive  is  an  important  source  of 
fat,  furnishing  olive  oil.  The  seed  of  the  cotton  plant  furnishes  an 
important  commercial  oil,  cottonseed  oil. 

6.  Nuts.  Nuts  contain  a  large  amount  of  fat.  The  oil  of 
peanuts  and  cocoanuts  furnish  important  commercial  forms  of  oil. 

Fats  are  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 
They  contain  a  larger  amount  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  than 
do  carbohydrates,  hence  have  a  greater  fuel  value. 


Carbohydrates 
Fats      .     .     . 


Carbon 


,44.4% 
76.5  % 


Hydrogen 


6.2% 
11.9% 


Oxygen 


49.4% 
11.5% 


One  pound  of  fat  yields  approximately  two  and  one 
fourth  times  as  much  heat  and  energy  as  one  pound  of  car- 
bohydrates, hence  forms  a  valuable  food  in  cold  climates. 

143 


144  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Fats  are  composed  of  fatty  acids  and  glycerine.  Among 
the  fatty  acids  are : 

1.  Stearic  acid  of  stearin. 

2.  Palmatic  acid  of  palmatin. 

3.  Oleic  acid  of  olein. 

One  or  more  of  these  acids  are  found  in  all  fats  in  combina- 
tion with  glycerine.  The  fatty  acid  which  predominates 
gives  the  characteristic  to  the  fat. 

Fats  may  be  split  up  into  fatty  acids  and  glycerine  by 

(1)  Being  heated  in  very  hot  steam. 

stearin  glycerine  stearic  acid 

(Ci7H3502)3C3H5  +  3H2O    =  €3H5(OH)3    +  3C17H35COOH 

(2)  Bacterial  action,  as  when  fats  become  rancid. 

(3)  Action  of  fat-splitting  enzymes  of  the  digestive  fluids. 

(4)  Action  of  strong  alkahes,  as  in  soap  making. 

(5)  Action  of  high  temperature,  as  in  frying. 

Fats  are  insoluble  in  water,  but  are  soluble  in  ether, 
chloroform,  gasoline,  etc.  To  remove  grease  spots  from 
clothing,  moisten  the  spot  with  any  of  the  above  solvents 
and  rub  lightly  until  dry.  The  solvent  will  dissolve  the 
grease  and  thus  free  the  dust  which  may  have  adhered  to  it. 
This  cleaning  process  should  always  be  carried  on  in  the  open 
air  and  away  from  any  flame,  as  the  fumes  of  gasohne,  etc., 
are  very  inflammable  when  mixed  with  air  and  ignite  easily, 
often  causing  serious  accidents. 

Emulsion.  —  When  fat  is  divided  into  minute  globules 
which  are  held  in  suspension  in  a  liquid,  it  is  said  to  be 
in  emulsion.  This  is  a  physical  state  and  is  readily  broken 
down.  The  most  perfect  example  of  an  emulsion  is  the 
suspension  of  the  fat  globules  in  fresh  milk.  The  emulsion 
is  but  temporary  and  the  fat  rises  to  the  surface  in  the  form 
of  cream. 


FATS^FRYING,   AND  PASTRY  145 

Saponification.  ~  When  fat  is  heated  with  a  strong  alkali, 
it  is  split  up  into  fatty  acid  and  glycerine,  the  alkali  uniting 
with  the  acid  and  forming  a  soap,  and  the  glycerine  being 
set  free.  This  reaction  is  called  saponification  and  may  be 
expressed  by  the  following  formula : 

sodium  sodium 

palmatin         +  hydrate  =     palmitate     +    glycerine 
C3H5(Ci6H3i02)3  +  3NaOH  =  3NaCi6H3i02  +  C3H5(OH)3 

The  soap  is  soluble  in  water.  This  reaction  is  made  use 
of  in  household  cleaning  when  a  strong  alkali  as  soda,  lye, 
borax,  etc.,  is  added  to  "  cut  the  grease." 

An  excellent  soap  may  be  made  in  the  household  from 
fats  left  in  cooking  combined  with  a  strong  alkali,  such  as 
concentrated  lye.  All  fats  or  drippings  left  from  cooking 
should,  therefore,  be  saved  for  soap  making.  Full  directions 
for  making  soap  are  given  with  the  lye  purchased  for  soap 
making. 

FRYING 

Frying  is  cooking  by  immersion  in  hot  fat  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  from  350°  to  400°  F.  Lard,  olive  oil,  beef  suet,  beef 
drippings,  or  some  commercial  forms  of  fat  may  be  used. 
The  fat  should  be  so  hot  that  it  will  instantly  coagulate  the 
albumen  on  the  outside  of  the  article,  forming  a  coating  to 
keep  the  fat  from  soaking  in.  All  articles  which  do  not 
contain  egg  in  sufficient  quantity  must  be  rolled  in  fat-proof 
coating.  Lard  boils  at  585°  F.,  so  for  cooking  purposes  fat 
does  not  boil.  The  ebullition  which  takes  place  is  due  to 
water  in  the  article  fried  being  converted  into  steam.  Too 
many  articles  should  not  be  placed  in  the  fat  at  one  time, 
as  they  will  cool  the  fat.  The  articles  should  not  be  too 
cold,  as  that  will  also  cool  the  fat.  All  fried  food  should  be 
perfectly   drained   by  holding   over   the   kettle  of  fat   and 


146  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

shaking  gently,  and  then  laid  on  brown  paper.  Raw  potato 
absorbs  the  unpleasant  odors  or  gases  of  fat,  and  collects 
some  of  the  sediment,  so  a  few  slices  should  be  put  in 
both  before  and  after  frying.  After  using  fat,  allow  it  to 
cool  slightly,  then  pour  it  through  a  cheesecloth  put  over 
a  strainer.  It  may  thus  be  used  several  times.  When 
several  articles  are  to  be  fried,  fry  them  in  the  follow- 
ing order :  potatoes,  batter  mixtures,  breaded  articles,  fish. 

Objections  to  Frying  as  a  Method  of  Cooking. 

1.  Articles  may  be  grease-soaked. 

2.  High  temperature  necessary  for  frying  splits  fat  up  into  fatty 
acid  and  glycerine.  Fatty  acid  i§-  irritating  to  organs  of  digestion. 
Glycerine  is  farther  split  up  by  heat  into  acrolein,  which  gives  the 
disagreeable  odor  to  hot  fat  and  which  is  also  very  irritating  to  the 
mucous  membranes  of  the  digestive  organs. 

Burning  Point.  —  The  higher  the  burning  point  of  a 
fat,  the  more  valuable  is  the  fat  for  frying  purposes,  as  it 
will  retain  a  greater  amount  of  heat  before  it  carbonizes. 
Butter  has  a  low  burning  point,  hence  carbonizes  easily  and 
is  a  poor  fat  to  use  for  frying. 

Experiment  74.  —  Take  temperature  of  fat  when  it  begins  to 
heat  with  a  laboratory  thermometer  that  will  register  450°  F. 
Note  temperature  of  fat  when  it  bubbles.  What  is  the  cause  of 
the  bubbling  ?  Heat  until  it  stops  bubbling  and  begins  to  smoke. 
Note  temperature.  Drop  in  a  slice  of  potato.  What  causes  the 
bubbling  in  the  fat?  What  is  the  temperature  of  fat  when  it  is 
hot  enough  for  frying  ?     Note  odor  of  acrolein. 

Experiment  75.  —  Heat  in  separate  pans  small  amounts  of 
butter,  lard,  cottolene,  and  other  commercial  fats.  Which  burns 
most  easily?     Which  has  the  highest  burning  point? 

Cost  of  Fat  for  Frying.  —  When  making  doughnuts  put  a 
definite  weight  of  lard  and  any  fats  used  locally  for  frying, 
in  kettles  of  the  same  size.     Fry  an  equal  number  of  dough- 


FATS  — FRYING,   AND   PASTRY  147 

nuts  in  each.  Weigh  the  lard  and  the  other  fats  which  are 
left  after  frying,  computing  the  amount  and  cost  of  the 
fats  used.  Estimate  the  cost  of  frying  a  dozen  doughnuts 
in  each  kind  of  fat. 

Rule  for  testing  fat.  —  When  the  fat  begins  to  smoke,  drop 
in  an  inch  cube  of  bread  from  the  soft  part  of  the  loaf.  If  it 
browns  in  forty  seconds  the  temperature  is  right  for  frying 
any  cooked  mixture,  as  croquettes;  if  it  browns  in  sixty 
seconds  it  is  right  for  uncooked  mixtures,  as  doughnuts. 

Fried  Potatoes 

Wash  and  pare  potatoes.  Slice  thinly  on  a  vegetable  sheer  into 
a  bowl  of  ice  water.  Let  stand  an  hour,  drain,  and  dry  between 
towels.  Fry  in  hot  fat,  stirring  while  frying  to  make  them  brown 
evenly.  When  a  light  brown  put  into  a  colander.  Sprinkle  lightly 
with  salt. 

French  Fried  Potatoes 

Select  small  potatoes  of  uniform  size.  Wash,  pare,  and  cut  into 
eighths  lengthwise.  Soak  1  hour  in  cold  water.  Dry  well  and  fry 
in  hot  fat  until  the  center  of  the  potato  is  cooked.  Drain  well  in  a 
colander  or  on  brown  paper.     Sprinkle  with  salt,  and  serve. 

Doughnuts 

Yolks  of  4  eggs  or  2  whole  eggs  ^  ts.  salt 

1  c.  sugar  I  ts.  each  cinnamon  and  nutmeg 

3  tb.  melted  butter  Flour  to  make  a  dough  just 
I  c.  milk  and  ^  c.  water  stiff  enough  to  handle,  about 

4  ts.  baking  powder  4  c. 

To  the  beaten  eggs  add  sugar  and  butter.  Beat  well,  add  water 
and  milk,  then  2  c.  flour  sifted  with  the  baking  powder,  salt,  and 
spices.  Add  more  flour  till  of  the  right  consistency.  Toss  one 
third  of  the  mixture  on  a  floured  board.  Knead  lightly.  Roll  to  ^ 
inch  or  more  in  thickness.  Cut  with  a  doughnut  cutter  and  fry  in 
deep  fat.     Drain  well. 


148  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Doughnuts  should  come  quickly  to  the  top  of  the  fat,  brown 
slightly  on  one  side,  then  be  turned  to  brown  on  the  other.  If  the 
fat  is  not  hot  enough,  they  will  absorl)  fat ;  if  too  hot,  they  will 
brown  before  sufficiently  risen.  When  they  are  slightly  cool,  put 
them  in  a  paper  bag,  one  at  a  time,  with  3  or  4  tb.  powdered  sugar, 
and  shake  gently  to  coat  them  with  sugar. 

Crullers 

I  c.  butter  4  c.  flour,  or  enough  to 

1  c.  sugar  make  dough 

2  eggs,  beaten  separately  :    4  ts.  baking  powder 
1  c.  milk    ~    ^  ^  ts.  nutmeg 

Powdered  sugar  and  cinnamon 

Cream  the  butter,  add  sugar  gradually,  beaten  yolks  and  beaten 
whites.  Mix  dry  ingredients,  add  alternately  with  the  milk.  Put 
on  floured  board,  roll  thin,  and  cut  in  pieces  two  by  three  inches. 
Cut  3  or  4  parallel  incisions,  run  finger  in  and  out  of  them,  and 
drop  into  deep  fat.  Fry  the  same  as  doughnuts,  and  roll  in 
powdered  sugar  and  cinnamon. 

Potato  Croquettes 

1  pt.  hot  mashed  potatoes  ^  ts.  celery  salt 

2  tb.  butter  ^  tb.  grated  onion 

^  ts.  salt  1  tb.  minced  parsley 

Cayenne  and  black  pepper  Yolks  of  1  or  2  eggs 

to  taste 
Mix  all  but  the  egg  and  beat  till  very  light.    When  slightly  cool 
add  beaten  egg.     Shape  into  balls.     Roll  in  fat-proof  coating  and 
fry  in  deep  fat.     Drain  on  brown  paper.     Serve  hot. 

Veal  Croquettes 

Chop  cold  veal  fine.  Season  highly  with  salt,  celery  salt, 
cayenne,  lemon  juice  and  parsley.  Moisten  1^  c.  of  the  veal  with 
1  c.  thick  cream  sauce.     (Page  24.)     Spread  out  the  mixture  on  a 


FATS  — FRYING,   AND  PASTRY  149 

plate  and  allow  it  to  become  perfectly  cold.  Shape  into  cylinders,  or 
pear  shaped  mounds,  roll  in  fat-proof  coating,  and  fry  in  deep 
fat.     Drain  and  serve  hot. 

Chicken,  salmon,  lobster,  sweetbread,  or  any  meat  croquettes 
are  prepared  in  same  manner. 

Fat-proof  Coating 

Roll  the  article  to  be  fried  in  fine  sifted  bread  crumbs,  then  dip 
in  egg  slightly  beaten  with  1  tb.  water,  roll  again  in  crumbs.  If 
not  perfectly  coated  the  article  may  crack  in  frying. 

To  prepare  Crumbs 

Dry  pieces  of  bread  in  the  oven  without  browning,  roll  or  put 
them  through  the  meat  chopper  and  sift.  Put  into  fruit  jars  to  be 
ready  for  use. 

Bread  crumbs  make  a  richer  brown  than  cracker  crumbs. 

Fritter  Batter 

1  c.  flour  Whites  of  2  eggs 

I  ts.  salt  Yolks  of  2  eggs 

^  c.  milk  or  water  1  tb.  melted  butter  or  olive  oil 

Mix  salt  and  flour.  Add  milk  gradually,  yolks  of  eggs  beaten 
until  thick,  butter,  and  beaten  whites  of  the  eggs.  If  intended  for 
fruit,  add  1  ts.  sugar ;  if  for  oysters  or  tripe,  add  1  tb.  lemon  juice. 

Banana  Fritters 

4  bananas  Powdered  sugar 

1  tb.  lemon  juice 
Remove  skins  from  bananas,  cut  in  halves  lengthwise  and  then 
across.     Sprinkle  with  sugar  and  lemon  and  let  stand.     Dip  in 
fritter  batter,  fry  in  deep  fat,  drain,  and  serve  hot  with  lemon  sauce. 

Fried  Fish 

Clean  and  dry  the  fish,  and  bone  it.  Rub  with  salt  and  pepper. 
Cut  into  pieces  suitable  for  serving,  roll  in  fat-proof  coating  and  fry 
in  deep  fat  5  to  7  m.  Drain  and  serve  with  tomato,  tartar,  or  any 
acid  sauce. 


150  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Cheese  Croquettes 

Whites  of  3  eggs  1  ssp.  mustard 

1  c.  grated  cheese  Speck  of  cayenne 

Beat  the  whites  very  stiff,  stir  in  the  cheese  and  seasoning. 
Let  stand  in  a  cold  place  till  stiff  enough  to  mold.  Make  into  small 
balls  the  size  of  a  hickory  nut  and  fry  in  hot  fat.     Serve  with  salad. 

PASTRY 

While  the  materials  which  are  used  in  making  pastry  are 
wholesome  and  nutritious,  they  are  combined  in  a  form 
which  makes  them  somewhat  difficult  to  digest,  so  pastry 
should  be  used  sparingly  in  the  diet. 

The  requisites  for  good  pastry  are  that  it  shall  be  tender, 
flaky,  and  light.  The  first  quality  will  depend  upon  the 
amount  and  the  kind  of  fat  used,  upon  the  manner  in  which 
the  pastry  is  handled  in  mixing  and  rolling,  and  upon  the 
amount  of  water  used  in  making  the  dough.  If  but  little 
water  is  used,  the  gliadin  and  glutinin  of  the  flour  do  not 
unite  to  form  as  tough  a  gluten,  and*  the  pastry  is  more 
tender.  It  was  noted  in  bread  making  that  working  the 
dough  made  the  gluten  elastic,  and  as  this  is  not  desired  in 
pastry  making,  the  dough  should  be  handled  as  little  and  as 
lightly  as  possible. 

The  flaky  quality  of  the  pastry  will  depend  upon  the  num- 
ber of  layers  of  flour  and  fat  that  are  formed  in  the  dough 
by  the  methods  of  rolling  and  folding.  The  shortening  used 
should  be  very  cold  and  firm,  so  that  it  will  not  soften  and 
mix  with  the  flour.  All  pastry  is  improved  if  the  dough  is 
placed  in  a  napkin  and  put  near  the  ice  for  some  time  before 
being  rolled  into  shape  for  baking. 

The  lightness  of  the  pastry  will  depend  upon  the  amount 
of  air  incorporated  in  the  dough  in  folding,  and  its  expan- 


FATS  — FRYING,   AND   PASTRY  151 

sion  in  baking.     A  small  amount  of  baking  powder  is  some- 
times added  to  the  flour  before  making  it  into  dough. 

Winter  wheat  flour  should  be  used,  as  it  contains  less  gluten 
than  spring  wheat  flour  and  makes  a  more  tender  crust. 

Shortening  for  Pastry 

1.  Butter.  This  makes  a  crisp,  brown,  somewhat  hard 
crust.  It  is  used  in  making  puff  paste  and  may  be  mixed 
with  other  fats  for  ordinary  pastry. 

2.  Lard.     This  makes  a  soft,  white,  and  tender  crust. 

3.  Beef  suet.  When  properly  tried  out,  this  is  a  good 
and  an  inexpensive  form  of  fat. 

4.  Many  commercial  forms  of  fat  mixtures  may  be  used. 

To  render  fat.  —  Cut  beef  suet  or  leaf  fat  from  pork  into 
small  pieces.  Soak  in  cold  salted  water  for  several  hours. 
Drain  off  water  and  heat  fat  slowly  until  the  fat  separates 
out  and  the  connective  tissue  browns  slightly.  Drain 
through  a  cheese  cloth  placed  over  a  colander.  Press  to 
remove  all  fat. 

Note  to  Student.  —  Why  is  the  fat  soaked  in  salted  water  ? 
Weigh  fat  and  estimate  cost  per  pound.  Compare  cost  with  cur- 
rent market  price  of  lard. 

AMOUNT  OF  SHORTENING   FOR   PASTRY 


Flour 

Shortening 

Puff  Paste 

2  c. 

1  c-  butter 

Pastry 

2  c. 

f  c.  shortening 

Plain  Pastry 

2  c. 

J  c.  shortening 

Use  I  ts.  salt  to  2  c.  flour. 

J  ts.  baking  powder  may  be  added  to  flour. 

1|  c.  flour  makes  one  large  pie  with  a  double  crust. 


152  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Pastry 

If  c.  flour  I  ts.  salt 

f  c.  shortening  Ice  water  to  make  stiff  dough 

Sift  the  salt  with  the  flour,  add  one  half  the  shortening,  and  with 
a  knife  cut  it  into  pieces  about  the  size  of  a  pea.  Add  the  ice  water 
gradually,  lifting  with  a  knife  that  portion  which  was  moistened 
first  and  put  it  on  a  floured  board,  or  push  to  one  side  of  the  bowl. 
Wet  another  portion,  and  so  continue  until  all  is  moistened,  using 
just  enough  water  to  hold'  it  together.  Dredge  the  dough  on  the 
board  with  flour,  roll  lightly  from  you  into  a  long  strip.  Put  the 
remainder  of  the  shortening  cut  in  small  pieces  over  the  top  of  the 
strip,  sprinkle  lightly  with  flour  and  fold  it  up  toward  the  center. 
Roll  again  into  a  long  strip  and  roll  this  up  like  a  jelly  roll.  Cut 
from  the  roll  enough  paste  for  a  crust,  roll  to  fit  the  pan,  place  on 
the  ungreased  pie  tin,  fulling  it  slightly  as  pastry  shrinks  in  baking. 
Trim  the  edges  with  a  knife  as  far  over  the  outside  edge  of  the  pan 
as  possible.     Put  in  the  filhng,  rounding  it  a  little  in  the  center. 

Roll  the  upper  crust.  While  it  is  still  on  the  board,  make 
perforations  to  let  the  steam  escape  during  the  baking.  Lay  the 
upper  crust  on  the  pie  by  lifting  it  on  the  rolling  pin,  fold  back 
one  half,  wet  the  edge  of  the  lower  crust,  put  the  upper  half 
back  on  it.  Trim  the  upper  crust,  pressing  the  edges  lightly 
together. 

Pies  baked  without  an  upper  crust  should  have  a  double  rim. 
Roll  paste  into  long  pieces,  and  cut  strips  about  one  inch  and  a 
quarter  wide ;  fit  neatly  on  the  rim  of  under  crust  before  filling  the 
pie.  Perforated  tins  may  be  used  for  baking  pies,  thus  insuring 
a  well-baked  under  crust.  Pastry  should  be  thoroughly  cooked  and 
well  browned.  Pies  require  from  thirty  to  forty-five  minutes  for 
baking.  Do  not  grease  the  tin.  When  slightly  cool,  slip  the  pie 
on  to  an  earthen  plate. 

Apple  Pie 

4  or  5  sour  apples  1  ts.  lemon  juice 

f  c.  sugar  I  ts.  salt 

I  ts.  nutmeg  |  ts.  butter 


FATS  — FRYING,   AND   PASTRY  153 

Line  a  pie  plate  with  paste.  Pare  and  slice  apples.  Put  a  row 
around  the  plate  one  half  inch  from  the  edge,  fill  the  center  of  the 
plate,  then  pile  on  the  remaining  apples.  Mix  sugar,  salt,  nutmeg 
and  lemon  juice  and  sprinkle  on  the  apples.  Dot  with  butter  and 
sprinkle  with  flour.  Add  a  little  water.  Put  on  the  upper  crust, 
bake  40  to  45  m.  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Evaporated  apples  may  be  soaked  overnight  and  used  in  place 
of  fresh  ones. 

Pumpkin  Pie 

1|  c.  steamed  and  strained  I  ts.  each  cinnamon,  gin- 
pumpkin  ger,  nutmeg 
I  c.  sugar  1  egg 
I  ts.  salt  I  c.  milk 

Add  sugar,  salt,  spice  to  pumpkin;  add  the  milk,  scalded,  and 
when  cool,  the  egg  slightly  beaten. 

Pour  into  a  crust  with  a  double  rim.  Bake  in  a  quick  oven  at 
first  to  set  rim;  decrease  the  heat  afterward,  as  milk  and  egg  in 
combination  must  be  cooked  at  a  low  temperature. 

If  richer  pie  is  desired,  use  1  c.  pumpkin,  ^  c.  milk,  |  c.  cream, 
and  an  additional  egg  yolk. 

Custard  Pie 

2  eggs  i  ts.  salt 

I  c.  sugar  H  c.  milk 

Nutmeg 

Beat  egg  slightly,  add  sugar,  salt,  and  milk.  Strain  into  a  pie 
plate  lined  with  crust  with  a  double  rim.  Bake  in  a  quick  oven 
at  first  to  set  the  rim ;  decrease  the  heat  afterward,  as  the  custard 
will  separate  if  cooked  too  quickly.  When  a  knife  inserted  into 
the  custard  comes  out  clean,  the  pie  is  baked. 

Do  not  allow  the  custard  to  boil  during  the  baking. 


154  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Mince  Meat 

1  chopped  apple  1  tb.  boiled  cider 

^  c.  raisins,  seeded  and  1  c.  sugar 

chopped  1  ts.  cinnamon 

I  c.  currants  |  ts.  cloves 

I  c.  butter  or  suet  ^  grated  nutmeg 

1  tb.  molasses  I  ts.  mace 

1  ts.  salt 
Add  enough  stock  in  which  the  meat  was  cooked  to  moisten; 
heat  gradually  and  simmer  10  m.     Then  add  1  c.  chopped  meat, 
1  tb.  currant  jelly.     Cook  15  m. 

Lemon  Pie 

I  c.  sugar  Yolks  of  2  eggs 

1  c.  water  Grated  rind  and  juice 

3  tb.  corn  starch  of  one  lemon 

1  ts.  butter 
Mix  corn  starch  and  sugar,  add  boiling  water,  stirring  constantly ; 
cook  2  m.,  add  butter,  beaten  yolks,  and  lemon.     Pour  into  a  pan 
lined  with  a  crust  with  a  double  rim.     Bake  till  pastry  is  brown. 
Cool  slightly  and  cover  with  a  meringue. 

Meringue 

Whites  of  2  eggs  A  few  drops  of  lemon 

4  tb.  powdered  sugar  juice  or  vanilla 

Beat  the  whites  till  stiff,  add  sugar  gradually,  continue  beating, 
add  flavoring,  and  spread  on  the  pie.  Bake  in  a  slow  oven  10  to 
12  m.     If  cooked  quickly  and  too  long,  meringue  is  tough. 

Cranberry  Pie 

Line  a  pie  dish  with  paste  and  fill  with  uncooked  cranberries. 
Add  ^  c.  molasses,  4  tb.  sugar.  Cover  with  an  upper  crust  and 
bake  in  a  quick  oven  30  m. 


FATS  — FRYING,   AND  PASTRY  155 

Cranberry  Tart 

Line  a  pan  with  paste,  fill  with  stewed  and  sweetened  cran- 
berries. Lay  strips  of  crust  over  the  top,  log  cabin  fashion,  and 
bake. 

Tarts 

Roll  paste  jV  inch  thick.  Cut  with  a  biscuit  cutter.  Cut  as 
many  more  pieces  with  a  doughnut  cutter.  Brush  the  circles  with 
water  and  lay  the  rims  on  them.  Chill  thoroughly  and  bake  L5  m. 
in  a  hot  oven.  Cool  and  fill  with  jelly.  By  placing  3  or  4  rings  on 
the  tart,  shells  may  be  made  for  creamed  oysters  or  chicken. 

Cheese  Straws 

Roll  paste  I  inch  thick.  Sprinkle  one  half  with  grated  cheese 
to  which  has  been  added  a  few  grains  of  salt  and  cayenne.  Fold, 
press  edges  together,  fold  again,  roll  out  I  inch  thick.  Sprinkle 
with  cheese  and  proceed  as  before ;  repeat  twice.  Cut  in  strips  5 
inches  long,  |  inch  wide ;   dust  with  salt.     Bake  8  m.  in  hot  oven. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
CAKES  AND   PUDDINGS 

Cakes  may  be  classified  under  two  heads  : 

1.  Cakes  without  butter,  or  sponge  cakes. 

2.  .  Cakes  with  butter. 

Powdered  sugar  makes  a  fine-grained  cake.  Coarse  granu- 
lated sugar  makes  a  coarse-grained,  sticky  cake.  Winter 
wheat  flour  should  be  used,  as  it  makes  a  light,  tender  cake. 

To  mix  Sponge  Cake.  —  Separate  the  yolks  from  the 
whites.  Beat  the  yolks  till  lemon-colored  and  thick.  Add 
the  sugar  gradually  and  continue  beating.  Add  flavoring. 
Fold  in  the  whites  beaten  stiff.  Sift  in  the  flour  carefully, 
and  do  not  beat  after  adding  the  flour,  or  the  air  bubbles 
will  be  broken  and  the  cake  will  be  close  grained  and  tough. 

Do  not  grease  the  pan  for  sponge  cakes.  Line  the  bottom 
of  the  pan  with  ungr eased  paper  cut  to  fit  it. 

To  mix  Butter  Cakes.  —  Use  an  earthen  bowl  and  a  wooden 
spoon.  Have  all  the  ingredients  measured  and  ready,  the 
pans  greased  before  beginning  to  mix  the  cake.  Cream  the 
butter,  add  the  sugar  gradually,  and  beat  till  very  light. 
Add  the'  beaten  yolks,  flavoring,  then  the  milk,  and  flour  in 
which  the  baking  powder  has  been  sifted,  alternately.  Beat 
well,  as  cake  is  made  flne-grained  only  by  long  beating; 
theQ  fold  in  the  beaten  whites.  Never  stir  the  cake  after 
the  final  beating. 

For  butter  cakes,  grease  the  pan  with  lard  (do  not  use 
butter,  as  it  burns),  sprinkle  with  flour,  shake  out  all  the 

156 


CAKES   AND   PUDDINCS  157 

flour  that  does  not  adhere  to  the  grease.  Fill  the  pans  about 
two  thirds  full,  having  the  mixture  come  well  into  the  corners. 
Leave  a  slight  (h^pressioii  in  the  middle,  so  that  tlie  cakes 
will  be  level  when  baked. 

Baking.  —  Th(v  baking  is  tin;  most  critical  part  oi"  (;ake 
making.  Test  the  oven  with  a  piece  of  white  paper.  If  it 
turns  a  light  yellow  in  5  minutes,  it  is  ready  for  sponge  cakes ; 
if  a  dark  yellow  in  5  minutes,  it  is  ready  for  butter  cakes. 

The  time  of  baking  should  be  divided  into  quarters; 
during  the  first  quarter  the  mixture  should  begin  to  rise; 
during  the  second  quarter  it  should  continue  to  rise  and 
begin  to  brown;  in  the  third  quarter,  continue  browning; 
in  the  last  quarter,  finish  baking  and  shrink  from  the  edge 
of  the  pan.  Cake  should  not  be  moved  until  it  has  risen 
its  full  height.  When  it  feels  firm  to  the  touch,  shrinks 
from  the  pan,  stops  crackling,  and  a  straw  inserted  comes 
out  clean,  the  cake  is  done.  Small  and  layer  cakes  require 
a  hotter  oven  than  sponge  and  loaf  cakes. 

Sponge  cakes  are  of  two  general  kinds  : 

1.  Those  in  which  the  eggs  and  sugar  are  the  only  liquids 
used. 

2.  Those  in  which  water  is  added  for  part  of  the  liquid. 
Sponge  cake  is  nutritious  and  is  easily  digested.     It  is 

the  best  form  of  cake  to  give  to  children. 

Note.  —  Estimate  the  cost  of  a  sponge  cake  made  without  water, 
and  a  sponge  cake  made  with  water,  and  compare  with  the  cost 
of  butter  cakes.  Compute  the  relative  cost  of  sponge  and  butter 
cakes  at  different  seasons  of  the  year. 

Sponge  Cake  (without  water) 

5  eggs  ^  lemon  (grated  rind  and  juice) 

1  c.  fine  granulated  sugar        1  c.  flour 
^  ts.  salt 


158  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Mix  as  ill  directions  for  sponge  cake.  The  mixture  should 
be  stiff  and  spongy.  Bake  in  a  loaf  in  a  deep  pan  nearly  1  hour, 
in  a  shallow  pan  about  40  minutes. 

Berwick  Sponge  Cake  (with  water) 

Yolks  3  eggs  2  c.  flour 

If  c.  sugar  2  ts.  baking  powder 

f  c.  water  Whites  3  eggs 

I  ts.  lemon  extract,  or  grated  rind  and  juice  ^  lemon 
Beat  the  yolks  5  minutes,  add  sugar  and  beat  3  minutes,  then 

the  water,  lemon,  flour  and  baking  powder,  and  last  fold  in  the 

beaten  whites.     Bake  in  a  loaf. 

Washington  Pie 

Bake  Berwick  Sponge  cake  in  round,  shallow  tins.  When  cool, 
split  and  fill  with  cream.     Sprinkle  top  with  powdered  sugar. 

Cream  Filling  for  Washington  Pie.  —  Scald  1  pt.  milk.  Mix  5  tb. 
flour,  ^  c.  sugar  with  a  little  cold  milk.  Stir  into  scalding  milk. 
Cook  5  m.  Add  1  beaten  egg,  |  ts.  salt.  Cook  till  thick.  When 
cool,  flavor  with  |  ts.  vanilla. 

Angel  Food 

Whites  of  11  eggs,  1  c.  flour  measured  after  one  sifting,  then 
sifted  four  times,  1|  c.  fine  granulated  sugar  sifted  three  times. 
Beat  the  whites  till  stiff,  on  a  platter  with  1  ts.  cream  of  tartar, 
add  the  sugar  gradually,  and  1  ts.  vanilla  or  almond.  Sift  in  the 
flour  quickly  and  lightly.  Pour  into  an  ungreased  pan  and  bake 
in  a  slow  oven  45  or  50  minutes.     Invert  the  pan  till  slightly  cool. 

Note.  —  Estimate  the  cost  of  an  angel  food  with  eggs  at  various 
prices.     Compare  with  cost  of  butter  cakes. 

Soft  Molasses  Cookies 

1  c.  molasses  | 

If  ts.  soda  1  ts.  ginger 

1  ts.  salt  1  ts.  mixed  spice 

1  c.  sour  milk  Flour 


CAKES  AND  riJ  1)1)1  N(;s  159 

Add  soda  to  molasses  and  beat  well,  add  milk,  shortening, 
spice>  salt  and  flour  enough  to  roll.  Put  on  a  floured  board  and 
roll  I  inch  thick.     Cut  and  bake. 

Sponge  Drops 

4  eggs  1  ts.  flavoring 

I  c.  powdered  sugar  f  c.  pastry  flour 

I  ssp.  salt 
Mix  as  for  sponge  cake.     Drop  by  spoonfuls  on  an  ungreased  pan, 
sprinkle  with  powdered  sugar  and  bake  12  to  16  minutes  in  a  slow 
oven. 

Cookies 

^  c.  butter  {  ts.  nutmeg 

1  c.  sugar  4  ts.  baking  powder 

1  or  2  eggs  2|   c.  flour,   or   enough    to    roll 

\  c.  milk  out  thin 

Mix  in  the  order  given,  following  directions  for  mixing  cup 
cakes.  Roll  out,  cut,  sprinkle  the  top  with  sugar.  Bake  about 
10  m. 

Sour  Cream  Cookies 


1  c.  butter 

^  c.  sour  cream 

1^  c.  sugar 

1  ts.  soda 

2  eggs 

Flour  to  roll 

Mix  as  above. 

Hermits 

1  c.  butter 

I  c.  raisins  stoned  ; 

f  c.  sugar 

^  ts.  cinnamon 

legg 

I  ts.  cloves 

4  tb.  milk 

I  ts.  mace 

2  c.  flour 

i  ts.  nutmeg 

2  ts.  baking  powder 
Cream  butter,   add  sugar  gradually,   raisins,   beaten   egg  and 
milk.     Mix  and  sift  the  dry  ingredients  and  add.     Roll  a  little 
thicker  than  plain  cookies.     Cut  and  bake. 


160  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Jumbles 
^  lb.  butter  2  eggs 

^  lb.  powdered  sugar  f  lb.  flour 

Nutmeg 
Save  out  3  tb.  of  the  sugar  to  roll  them  in.     Cream  the  butter, 
add  sugar,  beaten  eggs,  flour  and  nutmeg.     Roll,  cut  with  a  dough- 
nut cutter,  and  bake  a  light  brown. 

Sand  Tarts 

^  lb.  butter  '       3  eggs 

1  lb.  brown  sugar  -,  1  lb.  flour 

Cream  the  butter,  add  the  sugar,  beaten  eggs,  leaving  out  the 
white,  of  one,  and  the  flour.  Roll  thin,  cut  into  3-inch  squares. 
Brush  with  the  white  of  an  egg  and  sprinkle  with  granulated  sugar 
and  cinnamon.  Put  an  almond  or  raisin  in  the  center  of  each  and 
bake  in  a  quick  oven. 

Ginger  Snaps 
1  0.  molasses  ^ 


c.  shortening  1  ts.  salt 


1  tb.  ginger  3|  c.  flour 

Heat  the  molasses  to  boiling  point  and  pour  over  the  short- 
ening. Add  dry  ingredients  mixed  and  sifted.  Chill  thoroughly. 
Roll  as  thin  as  possible,  cut  and  bake.  Keep  the  dough  cool  or 
you  will  have  to  add  more  flour,  which  will  make  the  cookies  hard. 

Place  cookies  far  enough  apart  on  the  baking  pans  so  that 
they  will  not  run  together.  Roll  only  a  part  of  the  dough  at  a 
time,  gather  up  the  trimmings,  and,  add  to  the  dough.  Knead 
lightly  till  mixed. 

Soft  Ginger  Cookies 

f  c.  shortening  (butter  and  lard) 
1  c.  sugar  1  ts.  each  cinnamon,  ginger, 

1  c.  molasses  and  salt 

I  c.  hot  water,  in  which  dis-        |  ts.  cloves 

solve  1^  ts.  soda  Flour  to  make  a  soft  dough 

Mix  in  order  given ;  roll  and  bake. 


CAKES  AND  PUDDINGS  161 

Note.  —  Estimate  the  cost  per  dozen  of  the  various  small  cake 
and  cookies. 

Note.  —  Student  study  recipes  of  butter  cakes  as  obtained  from 
various  cook  books  and  family  recipes  and  tabulate  them  as  to 
the  proportions  of  ingredients  used.  Also  estimate  cost.  Ar- 
range the  proportions  on  the  basis  of  3  c.  flour  used  in  the  cake. 

Name  and  Source  of  Recipe 
Butter  Sugar 

Milk  Eggs 

Flour  Baking  Powder 

Total  Cost  of  Recipe 

One  Egg  Cake 

I  c.  butter  creamed  I.e.  milk 

1  c.  sugar  2 J  c.  flour 

1  egg  beaten  light  3^  ts.  baking  powder 

I  ts.  vanilla 
Mix  in  the  ordev  given,  following  directions  for  butter  cake. 
Bake  in  a  shallow  pan  in  a  moderate  oven  for  20  to  30  minutes. 


Wh: 

ite  Cake 

1  c.  butter 

3  c.  flour 

1^  c.  sugar 

4  ts.  baking  powder 

1  c.  water 

Whites  4  eggs 

Its. 

flavoring 

Follow  directions  for  mixing  butter  cakes. 

Park  Street  Cake 

^  c.  butter 

4  eggs 

1|  c.  sugar  4  ts.  baking  powder 

1  c.  milk  ,   1  ts.  flavoring 

3  c.  flour  1  ssp.  mace 

Cream  the  butter,  add  1  c.  sugar.     Add  the  remaining  cup  of 
sugar  to  the  beaten  yolks,  beat  well  together  and  proceed  as  in 

directions  for  butter  cakes.  Bake  in  2  loaves  in  a  moderate  oven, 
or  in  layers. 


162  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


Spice 

Cake 

i 
i 
i 

c.  butter 

c.  sugar 

c.  raisins  seeded  and  cut  in 

2  eggs 

21  c.  flour 

3  ts.  baking  powder 

i 
i 
i 

pieces 

c.  molasses 

c.  boiled  coffee 

ts.  nutmeg  grated 

h  ts. 
i  ts. 
^ts. 

salt 

cinnamon 

allspice 

Follow  directions  for  mixing  butter   cakes.     Bake  in   a  loaf 
in  a  moderate  oven,  or  in  layers. 

Devil's  Food 

Part  1.  I  c.  butter  |  c.  sweet  milk 

1  c.  brown  sugar  1  ts.  soda 

1  whole  egg  and  2  yolks  2|  c.  flour 
Mix  as  any  cake. 

Part  2.  3  squares  chocolate  |  c.  sweet  milk 

1  c.  brown  sugar 
Heat  over  hot  water  till  smooth;    add  to  Part  1  with  §  ts. 
vanilla.     Bake  in  two  layers  and  frost  with  white  frosting. 

Plain  Frosting 

White  of  1  egg  i  ts.  vanilla  or 

2  ts.  cold  water  i  tb.  lemon  juice 

I  c.  confectioner's  sugar 
Beat  egg  stiff.     Add  water  and  sugar  and  beat  well.     Add 
flavoring  and  more  sugar  if  needed.     Spread  with  a  broad  knife. 


Boiled  Frosting 

1  c.  granulated  sugar  ^  c.  water 

h  ts.  cream  of  tartar 


CAKES   AND   PUDDINGS  163 

Mix  together,  mid  boil,  without  stirring,  until  the  syru])  will 
thread  when  dropped  from  a  fork.  Pour  gradually  on  the  beaten 
white  of  1  egg,  beating  constantly,  and  continue  beating  until  thick 
enough  to  spread.  Flavor  with  ^  ts.  vanilla.  If  not  beaten  long 
enough  it  will  run  when  spreading;  if  beaten  too  long  it  will  not 
spread  smoothly.  In  the  latter  case  a  few  drops  of  boiling  water 
may  be  added. 

One  square  of  melted  chocolate  may  be  added  when  the  syrup 
is  poured  on  the  egg. 

Sugar  for  frosting  is  boiled  to  thread  stage  or  soft  ball,  and  at 
this  stage  the  sugar  thermometer  registers  238°  F. 

Marshmallow  Frosting 

1  c.  granulated  sugar  |  c.  water 

Boil  together  without  stirring  till  of  the  consistency  of  honey; 
then  dip  3  tb.  of  it  and  pour  on  the  beaten  white  of  1  egg.  Boil 
rest  of  syrup  until  it  threads,  then  pour  slowly  on  the  egg.  Add 
6  or  8  marshmallows  which  have  been  heated  over  hot  water  till 
soft.     Flavor  and  beat  till  thick  enough  to  spread. 

Beaten  Frosting 

To  the  unbeaten  whites  of  2  eggs  add  3  times  their  measure  in 
bulk  of  XXXX  confectioners'  sugar.  Beat  until  stiff  enough 
to  spread  on  the  cake.  Flavor  to  taste.  This  frosting  thickens 
from  the  beating  and  will  require  beating  from  20  to  30  minutes. 
It  may  then  be  used  for  ornamental  decoration  on  a  cake. 

Chocolate  Frosting 

2  squares  of  Baker's  ^  ts.  vanilla 
chocolate  1  c.  powdered  sugar 

I  c.  milk  '  Yolk  of  an  egg 

Melt  the  chocolate  in  the  double  boiler,  add  ^  the  sugar  and  the 
milk;  add  the  remaining  sugar  and  the  beaten  yolk.  Cook  till 
it  thickens,  stirring  constantly  at  first.  Cool  slightly,  flavor,  and 
spread. 


164  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

PUDDINGS 

Puddings  are  more  wholesome  than  pastry  and  should  be 
more  frequently  served.  They  may  be  divided  into  three 
general  classes  —  boiled,  baked,  and  steamed  puddings. 

Cottage  Pudding 

2  heaping  c.  flour  1  egg 

3^  ts.  baking  powder       ,,  |  c.  sugar 

I  ts.  salt  3  tb.  melted  butter 

1  c.  milk 
Mix  the  salt  and  baking  powder  with  the  flour.     Add  the  sugar, 
butter,  and  milk  to  the  beaten  egg  and  stir  into  the  flour.     Bake 
in  a  shallow  pan  in  a  quick  oven  from  20  to  25  m.     Serve  hot  with 
sauce. 

Rice  Pudding 

\  c.  rice  \  ts.  salt 

\  c.  sugar  1  qt.  milk 

Wash  rice,  mix  ingredients,  pour  into  a  pudding  dish.     Bake 

from  2  to  3  h.  in  a  very  slow  oven  at  first,  then  let  it  brown  slightly. 

Serve  hot  or  cold. 

.  Bread  Pudding 

3  c.  stale  bread  crumbs  soaked  1  h.  in  1  qt.  milk.  Add  to  2 
beaten  eggs,  ^  c.  sugar,  |  ts.  salt,  \  ts.  spice  and  2  tb.  softened 
butter.  Stir  into  the  milk.  Bake  1  h.  in  a  slow  oven.  Remove 
from  oven,  spread  with  jelly  or  jam,  and  cover  with  a  meringue 
made  of  the  beaten  whites  of  2  eggs  and  4  tb.  powdered  sugar. 
Bake  in  a  slow  oven  10  m.  until  a  delicate  brown. 

Grated  rind  and  juice  of  ^  lemon  may  be  added  to  the  pudding. 

Scalloped  Apples 

Put  a  layer  of  bread  crumbs  in  a  baking  dish,  then  a  layer  of 
sliced  apple,  sprinkle  with  sugar  and  cinnamon  and  grated  lemon 
rind,  dot  with  bits  of  butter.     Repeat  layers,  having  crumbs  on 


CAKES   AND   PUDDINGS  165 

top  with  bits  of  butter  to  make  them  brown.  Moisten  with  water. 
Bake  40  m.  in  moderate  oven.  Cover  at  first  to  prevent  crumbs 
from  browning  too  rapidly.     Serve  with  sugar  and  cream. 

Indian  Pudding 

5  c.  scalded  milk  ^  c.  molasses 

f  c.  Indian  meal  1  ts.  salt 

^  ts.  ginger,  if  liked 
Pour  the  milk  slowly  on  meal,  cook  in  double  boiler  20  m.  Add 
molasses,  salt,  and  ginger.  Pour  into  a  buttered  pudding  dish 
and  bake  2  hours  in  a  very  slow  oven.  Serve  with  cream.  If 
baked  too  rapidly  it  will  separate.  This  may  be  cooked  success- 
fully in  a  fireless  cooker. 

Suet  Pudding 

2^  c.  flour  1  c.  chopped  suet, 

1  ts.  soda  ,    or  ^  c.  butter 

^  ts.  salt  1  c.  raisins  or  currants, 

1  ts.  cinnamon  chopped 

^  ts.  nutmeg  1  c.  water  or  milk 

1  c.  molasses 
Sift  salt,  soda,  spice  with  flour,  rub  in  the  suet  and  add  raisins. 
Mix  milk  with  molasses  and  stir  it  into  the  dry  mixture.     Steam 
in  a  buttered  pudding  mold  3  h.    Serve  with  sauce. 

Graham  Pudding 

I  c.  butter  1^  c.  graham  flour 

^  ts.  soda 

1  c.  raisins  seeded  and 
1  egg  cut  in  pieces 

1  ts.  salt 
Melt  butter,  add  milk,  molasses,  well  beaten  egg,  the  dry  ingre- 
dients mixed  and   sifted,  and   raisins;    put   into   buttered  mold, 
cover,  and  steam  2^  hours.     Serve  with  sauce. 


2 


166  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Prune  Whip 

Wash  §  lb.  prunes.  Soak.  Cook  in  a  Uttle  water  till  soft. 
Remove  stones  and  rub  through  a  colander.  Add  f  c.  sugar.  Beat 
the  whites  of  4  eggs  stiff.  Add  the  prunes,  a  spoonful  at  a  time. 
Bake  in  a  slow  oven  till  a  light  brown,  about  20  m.  Serve  with 
whipped  cream  sweetened  and  flavored  with  vanilla,  or  with  soft 
custard. 

Tapioca  Cream 

2  tb.  pearl  tapioca  2  eggs  beaten  separately 
1  pt.  milk  I  ts.  salt 

^  c.  sugar  ^  ts.  vanilla 

Soak  tapioca  in  hot  water  to  cover  for  1  h.  or  more ;  add  the 
milk  and  cook  in  a  double  boiler  till  the  tapioca  is  transparent. 
To  beaten  yolks  add  sugar  and  salt.  Pour  the  hot  mixture  over 
them,  return  to  double  boiler,  and  cook  2  or  3  m.  Remove  from 
fire,  add  beaten  whites.    When  cool,  flavor. 

Sponge  Pudding 

1  tb.  butter  ^  ts.  baking  powder 

^  c.  flour  3  eggs  beaten 

5  c.  sugar  separately 

1  pt.  milk 
Mix  the  sugar  and  flour,  wet  in  a  little  cold  milk  and  stir  into 
a  pint  of  boiling  milk.  Cook  till  thick  and  smooth,  add  butter  and 
beaten  yolks.  When  cool  add  baking  powder  and  fold  in  beaten 
whites.  Bake  in  a  pudding  dish  set  in  a  pan  of  hot  water  25  to 
30  m.     Serve  with  creamy  sauce. 

Caramel  Custard 

4  c.  scalded  milk  1  ts.  vanilla 

3  or  4  eggs  ,  |  c.  sugar 

1  ssp.  salt 
Put  sugar  in  an  omelet-pan  and  stir  over  the  fire  until  it  forms 
a  light  brown  syrup.     Add  slowly  to  the  milk.     Cook  in  a  double 


CAKES   AND   PUDDINGS  167 

boiler  till  the  siijj;ar  dissolves,  ])our  slowly  over  the  slightly  beaten 
eggs.  Flavor.  Strain  into  a  buttered  pudding  dish.  Set  in  a 
pan  of  hot  water  and  bake;  till  a  knife  inserted  will  come  out  clean. 
Egg  and  milk  in  combination  must  be  cooked  at  a  low  temperature 
or  they  will  separate. 

Add  more  sugar  before  baking  if  not  sweet  enough. 


See  page  127. 


Lemon  Sauce 


Vanilla  Sauce 


1  c.  sugar 

1  or  2  tb.  butter 

1  c.  water 

legg 

Boil  water  and  sugar  together  5  m. 

Add  butter,  and  when 

melted  pour  over  the  egg  well  beaten. 

Stir  over  the  fire  till  it 

thickens  slightly.     Add  ^  ts.  vanilla.     If 

egg  is  cooked  too  long, 

it  will  separate. 

Foamy  Sauce 

f  c.  butter 

1  egg 

1  c.  powdered  sugar 

1  ts.  vanilla 

Cream  butter,  add  sugar  gradually,  the  well-beaten  egg  and 
vanilla ;  beat  while  heating  over  hot  water  till  smooth,  but  do  not 
melt  the  butter. 

Creamy  Sauce 

I  c.  butter  4  tb.  cream 

I  c.  powdered  sugar  1  ts.  vanilla 

Cream  the  butter.    Add  sugar  gradually  and  the  cream,  drop 

by  drop.    Set  over  hot  water  and  beat  till  smooth  and  creamy, 

but  do  not  melt  the  butter.     Flavor.  ^ 

Yellow  Sauce 

Beat  1  egg  until  very  thick.  Add  gradually  f  c.  powdered 
sugar  and  beat  well  with  a  silver  fork.  Add  1  tb.  melted  butter. 
Beat  over  hot  water  for  about  10  m.     Add  ^  ts.  vanilla.     Serve  hot. 


CHAPTER   XVII 
MINERAL  FOODS  — SALADS 

Use  of  mineral  matter  in  body : 

1.  Form  bone. 

2.  Essential  part  of  protoplasm. 

3.  Necessary  for  body  fluids,  etc. 

An  average  man  excretes  between  twenty  and  thirty  grams 
of  mineral  matter  per  day.  This  amount  must  be  supplied 
to  the  body  by  food  and  beverages.  The  only  mineral  matter 
which  is  added  directly  to  our  food  is  common  salt,  sodium 
chloride  (NaCl),  all  the  others  required  being  found  in  suffi- 
cient quantity  in  a  well-balanced  dietary.  We  probably 
consume  much  more  common  salt  than  is  needed  by  the 
body,  but  it  has  a  decided  value  as  a  condiment,  improving 
the  flavor  of  foods  and  hence  making  them  digest  more 
easily.  Mineral  matter,  as  a  rule,  is  found  abundantly  in 
fresh  fruits  and  vegetables. 

Two  of  the  most  important  minerals  required  by  the 
body  are  lime  (calcium,  Ca)  and  iron  (Fe).  The  other 
minerals  are  also  of  much  importance,  but  are  usually  sup- 
plied by  our  foods  in  sufl[icient  quantity  for  the  needs  of  the 
body. 

Lime.  —  Three  fourths  of  the  mineral  matter  of  the  body 
is  calcium  phosphate,  which  is  found  in  the  bones,  soft  tis- 
sues, and  in  solution  in  the  body  fluids.  Blood  will  not  clot 
without  lime  salts,  and  they  are  necessary  for  the  beating  of 
the  heart. 

168 


MINERAL  FOODS  — SALADS  169 

Botli  organic;  and  inorganic  forms  of  lime;  may  bo  assimi- 
lated I)y  the  l)()dy,  oven  those  which  arc  insoluble^  in  water. 
Animals  that  eat  bones  })rof)ably  assimihite  some;  of  the 
lime;  however,  organic  lime  has  greater  food  value  than 
inorganic  lime. 

A  child  must  have  a  sufficient  quantity  of  lime  in  its  food 
or  the  bones  will  not  grow  properly,  and  general  develop- 
ment of  the  body  will  be  arrested. 

Milk  is  very  rich  in  lime.  Lime  water  is  added  to  milk 
in  infant  feeding,  not  to  increase  the  amount  of  lime,  but 
to  soften  the  casein  curd  so  that  it  may  digest  more  easily. 
Milk  is  richer  in  lime  than  lime  water. 

Foods  Rich  in  Lime  Foods  Poor  in  Lime 

Milk  Meats 

Egg  yolk  Fish 

Peas,  beans,  turnips,  oranges,  Bread 

carrots,  parsnips,  spinach  Polished  rice 

Most  cereals  New  process  corn  meal 

Iron.  —  Iron  is  found  in  the  body  chiefly  in  the  red  color- 
ing or  hemoglobin  of  the  blood.  In  this  form  it  acts  as  an 
oxygen  carrier,  carrying  oxygen  from  the  lungs  to  all  parts 
of  the  body.  A  deficiency  of  iron  in  the  diet  brings  on 
anemia  and  other  diseases  of  deficient  oxidation.  Chloro- 
phyll grains  in  plants  cannot  be  produced  without  iron.  If 
plants  are  grown  in  solutions  free  from  iron,  the  leaves  are 
colorless,  but  become  green  when  iron  salts  are  added. 

Iron  is  found  as  a  constituent  part  of  protein.  Milk  con- 
tains less  iron  than  any  other  food,  as  the  young  animal  is 
born  with  about  three  times  more  iron  than  is  needed  for 
its  immediate  use.  Children  kept  too  long  on  a  milk  diet 
become  anemic. 


170  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

The  iron  in  cereals  lies  in  and  near  the  outer  coats  or 
bran.  Entire  wheat  flour  is  thus  much  richer  in  iron  than 
is  fine  white  flour.  The  human  body  readily  assimilates 
organic  iron  or  that  found  in  plant  foods  and  meats,  but  the 
value  of  medicinal  iron  tonics  is  doubtful,  as  inorganic  iron 
does  not  assimilate  readily,  if  at  all.  The  iron  in  eggs  and 
vegetables  is  probably  assimilated  to  better  advantage  than 
that  in  meats.  Herbivorous  animals  are  less  liable  to  anemia 
than  are  carnivorous  animals. 


IRON  IN  TYPICAL  FOOD  MATERIALS   (H.   C.  SHERMAN) 

Amount  op  Iron 

Food  in  100     Gbams 

Fresh  Substance 

Beefsteak,  all  lean 3.85  mm. 

Beefsteak,  medium,  fat 2.2 

Eggs 3.0 

Milk,  whole ■     • 0.24 

Milk,  skimmed 0.25 

Cream  (18.5%  fat) 0.20 

Cornmeal 1,15 

Oatmeal 3.7 

Rice,  polished 0.7 

Wheat  flour 1.5 

Wheat  entire  grain     .     .     .     .     . 5.2 

Beans,  lima,  dried • 7.2 

Beans,  navy,  dried 6.7 

Beans,  string,  fresh r     ....  1.6 

Cabbage 0.9 

Corn,  sweet 0.8 

Peas,  dried 5.6 

Potatoes ' .1.2 

Spinach 3.8 

Turnips 0.6 

Apples 0.3 

Prunes 2.9 

Raisins     .     .     .     , 3.6 


MINERAL   FOODS —  SALADS  171 


SALADS 


Salads  arc  mixtures  of  fish,  fruits,  vegetables  or  meats, 
with  a  salad  green  and  some  form  of  salad  dressing.  The 
food  value  of  salad  greens  is  not  high,  as  they  are  composed 
largely  of  water,  but  they  form  a  valuable  part  of  the  diet, 
because  of  their  richness  in  mineral  salts. 

A  salad  is  more  or  less  nutritious  according  to  the  ingredi- 
ents used  in  it.  The  butter,  oil,  cream  or  eggs  used  in  salad 
dressing  give  it  a  high  heat  and  energy  value.  During  the 
spring  and  summer  months  a  salad  of  fresh  green  vegetables 
should  appear  upon  the  table  every  day.  All  salads  should 
be  served  cold  and  crisp  and  the  dressing  should  be  added 
just  before  serving. 

The  salad  served  with  a  dinner  of  several  courses  should 
be  made  of  vegetables  or  fruits  and  be  mixed  with  a  French 
dressing.  When  the  salad  forms  a  main  dish  of  a  luncheon 
or  supper,  it  may  be  made  of  various  combinations  of  meats, 
vegetables;  etc.,  mixed  with  a  mayonnaise,  a  cooked,  or  a 
cream  dressing. 

Meat  for  salad  should  be  freed  from  skin,  gristle,  and  fat 
and  be  cut  into  small  cubes.  Fish  should  be  freed  from 
bones  and  skin,  and  the  flesh  flaked.  Vegetables,  as  a  rule, 
should  be  cut  into  quarter  inch  cubes. 

Lettuce.  —  Lettuce  should  be  carefully  washed  to  remove 
any  dirt  and  bacteria  which  may  cling  to  it  and  also  small 
green  insects  which  are  sometimes  found  on  the  under  side 
of  the  leaves.  Wash  each  leaf  separately,  changing  the 
water  often.  Shake  the  leaf  gently  to  remove  water,  then 
place  on  a  clean  towel  and  dry  carefully  with  another  towel 
until  perfectly  dry,  but  not  wilted. 

To  freshen  lettuce.  —  Place  in  a  bowl  of  ice  water  to  which 
has  been  added  1  tb.  vinegar  and  let  stand  J  hour. 


172 


DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


To  keep  lettuce.  —  After  washing,  put  lettuce  in  a  pail, 
stem  end  down,  cover  closely  and  set  in  a  cold  place. 

To  mix  salad.  —  Put  alternate  layers  of  salad  ingredients 
and  dressing  in  a  bowl.  Lift  from  the  bottom  with  a  fork 
and  spoon  and  toss  lightly  until  well  mixed. 

To  marinate  a  salad.  —  Cut  materials  for  a  salad  into 
cubes  and  pour  over  them  a  French' dressing.  Let  stand  an 
hour.     Drain ;  mix  salad  with  any  desired  dressing  as  usual. 

MATERIALS  THAT   MAY  BE   USED   IN  SALAD 


Meats 


Fruits 


Greens  and  Garnishes 


Chicken 

Oranges 

Lettuce 

Veal 

Grapefruit 

Celery 

Roast  pork 

Pineapple 

Endive 

Sweetbreads 

Bananas 

Chickery 

Calves'  brains 

Malaga  grapes 

Water  cress 

Fish 

Cherries 

Romaine 

Salmon 

Apples 

Escarole 

Lobster 

Dates 

Radishes 

Shrimp 

Miscellaneous 

Pimentos 

Sardines 

Eggs 

Sweet  peppers 

Oysters 

Nuts 

OUves 

White  fish 

Cheeses 
Marshmallows 
(with  fruit) 

Parsley 

Vegetables 

Potatoes 

Beets 

5 

Cabbage  (raw) 

Green  peas 

Spinach 

Cucumbers   (raw) 

Tomatoes  (raw) 

Carrots 

String  beans 

Asparagus 

Salad  dressings 

are  of  many  varieties. 

but  may  be  clasi 

under  the  following  heads  : 

L    Cooked  salad  dressing. 

3. 

French  dressing. 

2.   Mayonnaise. 

4. 

Cream  dressing. 

MINERAL   FOODS  — SALADS  173 

All  clroyyings,  witli  tlio  ('X(;('])tion  of  Frencli  dnissing,  should 
be  just  thick  enough  to  coat  tlu^  particles  of  food  with  which 
they  are  mixed;  if  too  tliin  they  will  s(»ttl(^  in  the  bottom  of 
the  dish ;  if  too  thick,  they  will  not  mix  well.  Tlu^y  should 
be  thinned  with  either  sweet  or  sour  cream  to  the  right 
consistency  just  l^efore  serving.  Dressings  an;  sc^asoned  with 
salt,  cayenne,  and  paprika,  but  mustard  should  be  used  spar- 
ingly, if  at  all.  A  small  amount  of  sugar  may  be  added  for 
fruit  salads,  but  a  dressing  for  a  fish  or  meat  salad  should  not 
be  sweetened. 

Cooked  Salad  Dressing 

Yolks  4  eggs  or  2  whole  eggs  beaten  until  very  light.  Add  2 
tb.  vinegar  and  2  tb,  milk  or  cream.  Set  the  bowl  in  a  saucepan 
of  hot  water  and  cook,  stirring  continuously  until  the  mixture  is 
of  the  consistency  of  soft  butter.  Do  not  let  the  water  boil  around 
it,  as  the  high  temperature  hardens  the  albumen  on  the  sides  of  the 
bowl  and  tends  to  make  the  dressing  lumpy.  Remove  from  fire 
and  add  3  or  4  tb.  butter,  1  ts.  salt,  and  few  grains  of  cayenne. 
When  ready  to  use,  thin  with  cream. 

Mayonnaise 

Put  yolks  of  1  or  2  eggs  on  a  plate  and  rub  smooth  with  a  silver 
fork.  Add  olive  oil,  drop  by  drop,  stirring  till  well  mixed.  When 
it  thickens,  add  a  few  drops  of  vinegar  to  thin ;  repeat  process  till 
required  amount  is  made.  Season.  Lemon  juice  may  be  used  in 
place  of  vinegar. 

If  the  dressing  separates  in  mixing,  add  the  mixture,  drop  by 
drop,  to  another  yolk  of  egg.  If  the  dressing  is  to  be  made  in 
quantity,  put  the  yolks  of  egg  in  a  bowl  and  beat  in  the  oil  with  a 
Dover  egg  beater.  Use  yolks  of  2  eggs  for  ^  pt.  oil.  When  ready 
to  use,  thin  with  whipped  cream. 


174  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

French  Dressing 

I  ts.  salt  3  tb.  olive  oil 

I  ts.  pepper  1  tb.  vinegar 

Add  oil  to  the  salt  and  pepper ;  stir  till  seasoning  is  dissolved ; 
add  vinegar  and  stir  till  well  mixed. 

Whipped  Cream  JDressing 

^  c.  whipping  cream  f  ts.  salt 

1  tb.  vinegar  Few  grains  cayenne  or 

1  tb.  lemon  juice  paprika 

Beat  cream  until  thick ;  add  the  other  ingredients  slowly.  Use 
at  once. 

Dressed  Lettuce 

Wash  and  dry  lettuce.  Serve  with  French  dressing  to  which 
Roquefort  cheese  has  been  added,  if  desired;  or  garnish  with  balls 
made  of  cream  cheese.  Any  of  the  salad  dressings  may  be  served 
with  lettuce. 

Potato  Salad 

Cut  cold  potatoes  into  one-fourth  inch  cubes,  sprinkle  lightly 
with  salt  and,  if  liked,  marinate  with  French  dressing.  Add  chopped 
onion,  celery,  cucumbers  cut  in  cubes,  chopped  parsley,  pimento, 
etc.,  to  taste.  Mix  with  salad  dressing;  garnish  with  radishes, 
shredded  lettuce,  hard-boiled  eggs,  etc. 

The  dressing  for  potato  salad  should  be  rather  thin,  as  the  potato 
absorbs  it. 

Cabbage  Salad 

Cut  the  cabbage  in  halves,  slice  very  thin ;  let  soak  ^  hour  in 
ice  water.     Drain  well,  mix  with  a  salad  dressing.     Serve  at  once. 

Egg  Salad 

Cook  eggs  twenty  minutes  in  water  just  below  the  boiling 
point.  Put  in  cold  water.  Remove  shells  and  cut  eggs  in  any 
desired  shape.  Put  on  lettuce  leaves.  Add  a  spoonful  of  salad 
dressing.     Garnish. 


MINERAL  FOODS —SALADS  175 

Fish  Salad 

Prepare  fish.  Add  an  equal  amount  of  celery  cut  in  small 
pieces.  Mix  with  a  salad  dressing  and  place  on  lettuce  leaves. 
Serve  at  once. 

Chicken  or  Any  Meat  Salad 

Cut  chicken  or  meat  in  ^-inch  cubes.  Add  an  equal  amount 
of  celery  cut  in  small  pieces.  Marinate  if  desired.  Mix  with  salad 
dressing  and  put  on  lettuce  leaves  or  shredded  lettuce.  Serve  at 
once. 

Sandwiches.  —  The  bread  for  sandwiches  should  have  a 
fine,  even  texture  and  should  be  twenty-four  hours  old. 
The  loaf  should  be  of  a  size  to  cut  the  sandwiches  with  as 
little  waste  as  possible.  All  crusts  trimmed  from  the  bread 
should  be  saved  for  bread  crumbs.  If  a  large  number  of 
sandwiches  is  to  be  made,  remove  all  crust  from  loaf  and 
trim  it  into  shape  before  slicing.  Very  thin  slices  of  buttered 
bread  may  be  prepared  by  softening  the  butter  and  spread- 
ing on  the  loaf  before  slicing.  Sandwiches  may  be  kept 
fresh  for  several  hours  by  wrapping  them  in  slightly  damp- 
ened napkins.  If  for  a  lunch  box,  each  sandwich  should  be 
wrapped  in  paraffin  paper.  The  lunch  box  should  be  lined 
with  paraffin  paper  and  be  divided  into  compartments  with 
pieces  of  cardboard  to  hold  the  different  kinds  of  food. 

Lettuce  Sandwiches 

Prepare  bread  for  sandwiches.  Spread  with  salad  dressing  and 
lay  shredded  lettuce  (which  has  been  washed  carefully  and  dried) 
between  the  slices. 

Egg  Sandwiches 

Chop  hard-boiled  eggs  fine  and  mix  with  salad  dressing.  Spread 
between  thin  slices  of  bread. 


176  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


Cheese  Sandwiches 


Mix  cream  cheese  with  mayonnaise  and  spread  between  sHces 
of  bread.     Chopped  pimentos,  ohves,  nuts,  etc.,  may  be  added. 

Cheese  Filling 

2  tb.  butter  .  ,|  ts.  salt 

3  tb.  corn  starch  '     '  Speck  cayenne 
1  c.  milk 

Make  as  a  white  sauce.  Cook  10  minutes.  Add  1  beaten  egg, 
1  c.  grated  cheese.  Cook  till  cheese  is  melted.  Cool.  Spread  in 
center  of  finger  rolls  and  heat  rolls  in  oven  just  before  serving. 
Or  spread  mixture  on  rounds  of  bread,  and  heat  in  oven  till  cheese 
is  melted. 

Ham  Sandwiches 

Mince  ham  fine.  Season  with  cayenne  and  mustard.  Moisten 
with  cream  or  melted  butter  and  spread  between  slices  of  bread. 

Cheese  Wafers 

Sprinkle  wafers  with  grated  cheese  mixed  with  a  little  mustard 
and  cayenne.     Bake  till  the  cheese  melts. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
GELATINE  AND  FROZEN  DESSERTS 

Gelatine  is  a  protein  and  is  classed  as  an  albuminoid.  It 
is  derived  from  the  collagen  of  connective  tissue,  cartilage, 
and  bone,  which  is  converted  into  gelatine  by  boiling  with 
water.  Unlike  albumen  and  globulin,  gelatine  is  soluble  in 
hot  water  and  forms  a  jelly  when  cold. 

Although  classed  as  a  true  protein,  gelatine  cannot  sustain 
life,  if  it  is  the  only  form  of  protein  supplied  to  the  body. 
When  gelatine  is  added  to  the  diet,  however,  a  smaller 
amount  of  other  forms  of  protein  is  required  to  maintain  a 
protein  equilibrium  in  the  body. 

Commercial  gelatine  is  extracted  from  the  tendons  and 
sinews  of  calves'  feet  and  from  the  bones,  tendons,  and  clip- 
pings of  skin  of  older  animals.  It  is  sold  in  the  form  of  sheets, 
or  is  shredded,  granulated,  or  powdered,  and  put  in  boxes. 
A  box  of  gelatine  usually  contains  two  ounces  and  will 
stiffen  two  quarts  of  jelly.  More  gelatine  should  be  used 
when  fruits  are  molded  in  the  jelly.  Uncooked  pineapple 
should  not  be  added  to  jelly,  as  it  contains  an  enzyme 
which  will  liquefy  the  gelatine;  cooking  destroys  the 
enzyme. 

Gelatine  should  be  first  soaked  in  cold  water  until  soft, 
using  1  c.  water  to  2  oz.  gelatine,  and  then  be  dissolved  in  a 
boiling  liquid  and  allowed  to  stand  without  disturbing  until 
it  jellies. 

N  177 


178  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Lemon  Jelly 

1  oz.  gelatine  (^  box)  ^  c.  lemon  juice 

^  c.  cold  water  2^  c.  boiling  water 

1  c.  sugar 

Soak  gelatine  in  cold  water  till  soft ;  add  the  sugar,  lemon 
juice,  and  the  boiling  water ;  stir  until  gelatine  is  dissolved.  Strain 
through  a  cheesecloth  wrung  out  of  hot  water.  Put  in  mold 
wet  in  cold  water  and  set  in  a  cold  place  till  firm. 

To  Unmold  Jelly.  Set  the  mold  in  a  pan  of  lukewarm  water, 
having  the  water  come  as  high  as  the  jelly.  Do  not  let  the  jelly 
melt.  Place  the  dish  in  which  the  jelly  is  to  be  served  over  the 
mold  and  invert  them  both.  Shake  gently  until  the  jelly  drops 
from  the  mold. 

Gelatine  has  a  very  low  melting  point,  so  the  water  should  not 
be  hot,  nor  the  mold  left  in  it  too  long. 


Jellied  Prunes 

^  lb.  prunes  1  c.  sugar 

I  box  gelatine  soaked  in  i  c.  lemon  juice 

I  c.  cold  water 

Wash  prunes  and  soak  for  several  hours  in  2  c.  cold  water,  cook 
in  same  water  till  soft ;  remove  prunes,  stone,  and  cut  in  quarters. 
To  prune  water  add  enough  boiling  water  to  make  2  c.  Add  soaked 
gelatine  to  boiling  mixture,  also  the  sugar  and  lemon  juice,  strain, 
add  prunes,  and  pour  into  mold.  Let  harden.  Stir  twice  while 
cooling  to  prevent  prunes  from  settling.  Serve  with  sweetened 
cream.  Dried  apricots  or  peaches  may  be  used  in  the  same 
way. 


Apple  Compote 

See  page  49. 


GELATINE  AND   FROZEN   DESSERTS  179 

Neapolitan  Pudding 

Soak  2  l>ox  g(!l;iliii('  in  I  c.  (told  w;il(u-,  dissohc.  in  I  ])i.  boiling 
water,  add  I  c.  sugar,  tlio  juicc!  of  1  l^inon  and  1  orange,  and  strain 
into  1  pt.  preserved  strawberries.  Pour  off  part  of  the  clear  juice 
and  let  it  begin  to  stiffen,  then  add  the  beaten  whites  of  2  eggs  and 
beat  like  snow  pudding.  Put  the  rest  of  the  mixture  into  a  mold 
and  pour  the  beaten  mixture  on  top.  Let  stand  till  hard.  Serve 
with  whipped  cream. 

Snow  Pudding 

I  box  gelatine  1^  c.  sugar 

1  c.  cold  water  Juice  of  3  lemons 

1  pt.  boiling  water  Whites  of  3  eggs 

Soak  the  gelatine  in  cold  water,  add  the  sugar  and  lemon  juice, 
and  pour  over  them  the  boiling  water.  Stir  till  gelatine  and  sugar 
are  dissolved.  Strain.  Set  in  a  pan  of  ice  water.  When  the 
mixture  begins  to  stiffen,  beat  till  smooth,  and  add  the  beaten  whites. 
Beat  till  white  and  foamy  all  through  like  a  drop  batter.  Pour 
into  a  mold  wet  in  cold  water.  Let  stand  several  hours.  Serve 
with  soft  custard. 

Soft  Custard 

1  pt.  milk  ^  c.  sugar 

Yolks  3  eggs  i  ssp.  salt 

I  ts.  vanilla 
Scald  the  milk  and  pour  it  slowly  over  the  beaten  yolks  and  sugar. 
Return  to  double  boiler  and  cook  2  or  3  m.  or  till  it  coats  the  spoon. 
When  cool,  flavor.     If  it  separates,  set  in  cold  water  and  beat  till 
smooth  with  a  Dover  egg  beater. 

Bavarian  Cream 

1  c.  milk  I  c.  sugar 

2  yolks  of  eggs  Pinch  of  salt 

Cook  as  a  soft  custard  in  a  double  boiler.  While  hot,  add 
I  c.  gelatine  which  has  been  soaked  in  ^  c.  cold  water.     Stir  until 


180  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

gelatine  is  dissolved.  Strain  through  a  wire  sieve.  Let  stand 
until  the  mixture  begins  to  stiffen,  then  beat  it  smooth,  add  1  ts. 
vanilla  and  1  c.  cream  beaten  stiff.  Stir  slowly  until  well  mixed. 
Pour  into  mold  wet  in  cold  water.  Let  stand  until  firm.  Various 
flavorings  may  be  added. 

Spanish  Cream 

Make  as  Bavarian  Cream,  adding  the  2  beaten  whites  of  eggs 
in  place  of  the  whipped  cream. 

Charlotte  Russe 

\  box  gelatine  1  ts.  vanilla 

I  c.  cold  water  Lady  fingers  or 

\  c.  boiling  water  .  sponge  cake 

^  c.  powdered  sugar  1  pt.  cream 

Soak  the  gelatine  in  cold  water.  Chill  the  cream  and  whip 
it,  skimming  off  the  froth  into  a  bowl  set  in  ice  water.  Sift  the 
sugar  over  the  whipped  cream  and  flavor.  Dissolve  the  gelatine 
in  the  boiling  water  and  let  stand  until  cool,  but  do  not  let  it  stiffen ; 
strain  over  the  cream.  Stir  slowly  till  the  mixture  is  nearly  a 
drop  batter.  If  it  feels  lumpy,  remove  from  ice  water  and  stir  till 
smooth.  Pour  into  a  mold  lined  with  lady  fingers.  Keep  on  ice 
till  ready  to  serve. 

Freezing.  —  The  freezing  point. of  water  is  32°  F.  or  0°  C. 
The  freezing  point  of  a  mixture  of  salt,  ice,  and  water  is 
lower  than  that  of  water.  When  salt  and  ice  are  placed  in 
the  space  between  the  wooden  tub  of  an  ice  cream  freezer 
and  the  metal  can,  their  freezing  point  being  lower  than 
that  of  the  ice  alone,  the  ice  melts  and  draws  the  heat 
(latent  heat)  from  the  cream  in  the  inner  can,  thus  causing 
the  cream  to  freeze.  The  larger  the  quantity  of  salt  used, 
the  more  quickly  the  mixture  will  freeze,  but  too  rapid 
freezing  makes  a  coarse-grained  ice  cream.  The  mixture 
will  freeze  more  rapidly  if  the  ice  is  chopped  fine. 


GELATINE  AND  FROZEN   DESSERTS  181 

Experiment  76.  —  Make  a  mixture  of  1  part  salt  to  3  parts 
ice.  Make  a  mixture  of  1  part  salt  to  2  parts  ice.  Take  tempera- 
ture. Place  a  test  tube  containing  water  in  each  of  the  above 
mixtures ;  note  time  required  to  freeze  the  water. 


ICES   AND    SHERBETS 

Ices  and  Sherbets  are  prepared  from  various  fruit  juices, 
crushed  fruits,  or  other  flavorings  which  are  dissolved  in 
water.  The  frozen  mixture  will  have  a  smoother  texture  if 
the  sugar  used  is  cooked  to  a  syrup  with  part  of  the  liquid 
before  adding  to  the  fruit.  A  white,  creamy  sherbet  may 
be  made  by  adding  the  beaten  whites  of  1  or  2  eggs  to  the 
partly  frozen  mixture.  A  mixture  will  lose  sweetness  and 
flavor  when  frozen  and  should  be  made  a  little  sweeter  and 
be  more  highly  flavored  than  desired,  before  freezing. 
Suggestions  for  sherbets : 

Lemon  Strawberry 

Orange  Raspberry 

Pineapple  Juice  of  cooked  cranberries 

Grape  juice  Mint  steeped  in  water 

Bananas  Apricots 

Oranges  and  lemons        Peach 
Fruits- should  be  mashed  or  grated,  or  only  the  juice  used. 
If  large  pieces  of  fruit  are  to  be  used,  add  when  the  mixture 
is  nearly  frozen. 

How  to  freeze  Ice  Cream  and  Ices.  —  Crush  ice  fine  by 
putting  it  in  a  burlap  bag  and  pounding  with  a  wooden 
mallet  or  hatchet.  Put  the  mixture  to  be  frozen  in  the  can, 
put  into  the  wooden  tub  and  adjust  the  top,  making  sure  it 
fits  perfectly.  Put  in  the  ice,  allowing  three  measures  of 
ice  to  one  of  rock  salt.  Pound  down  with  a  small  board. 
Repeat  till  ice  comes  nearly  to  the  top  of  the  can. 


182  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

The  mixture  increases  in  bulk  during  freezing,  so  the  can 
should  be  only  three  fourths  full.  Turn  the  crank  slowly 
and  steadily  at  first,  more  rapidly  toward  the  last.  Never 
draw  off  the  salt  water  till  the  mixture  is  frozen.  When 
freezing  is  accomplished,  remove  dasher  and  with  spoon 
pack  solidly.  Draw  off  the  water;  repack  freezer,  using 
four  parts  of  ice  to  one  of  salt.  Cover  freezer  and  let  stand 
from  one  to  three  hours  to  ripen. 

Pineapple  Ice 

1  pt  grated  or  chopped.  1  pt.  sugar 

pineapple  3  c.  water 

Whites  of  2  eggs 
Boil  water   and   sugar   10  m.     Cool,   add   pineapple.     Freeze 
according  to  directions.     When  frozen  to  a  mush,  add  the  beaten 
whites  and  finish  freezing.     Juice  and  grated  rind  of  1  or  2  lemons 
may  be  added  to  mixture  before  freezing. 

Lemon  Ice 

1  qt.  water  Grated  rind  of  2  lemons 

2  c.  sugar  f  c.  lemon  juice 

Whites  of  2  eggs 
Boil  the  water  and  sugar  10  m.  .  Add  lemon  rind  and  juice. 
Cool   and   strain.     Freeze.     When   nearly   stiff,    add   the   beaten 
whites  and  finish  freezing. 

ICE   CREAM 

Ice  cream  may  be  prepared  from : 

1.  Pure  cream. 

2.  Cream  plus  milk. 

3.  Soft  custard  plus  cream. 

4.  Soft  custard. 


GELATINE   AND   FROZEN    DES^'^ERTS  183 

Any  desired  flavoring  may  be  add(Hi. 

The  sugar  used  should  be  heated  till  dissolved  with  part 
of  the  liquid.  If  part  of  the  cream  is  whipped,  it  will  im- 
prove the  texture.  The  custard  may  be  thickened  with 
corn  starch,  arrowroot,  or  flour  and  yolks  of  eggs,  or  with 
egg  yolks  alone.     Cook  corn  starch  15  minutes. 

Custard  Foundation  for  Ice  Cream 

Thicken  2  c.  milk  scalded  in  double  boiler,  with  2  tb.  flour 
wet  in  cold  milk.  Add  1  c.  sugar,  |  ts.  salt.  Cook  5  minutes, 
add  beaten  yolks  2  eggs,  cook  1  minute,  cool.  When  cool,  add 
3  c.  cream  and  any  desired  flavor.     Freeze. 

Flavorings  which  may  be  added : 
2  tb.  vanilla. 

2  sq.  melted  chocolate  and  1  tb.  vanilla. 
Sweetened  and  crushed  fruits. 
Chopped  candied  fruits,  1  tb.  vanilla. 
Dried  and  pounded  macaroons,  1  tb.  vanilla,  etc. 

Cream  Foundation  for  Ice  Cream 

1  qt.  cream  f  c.  sugar 

Scald  sugar  with  1  c.  of  the  cream ;  cool,  add  remainder  of  cream 
and  flavoring.     Freeze. 

Strawberry  Ice  Cream 

To  above  rule,  add  3  pts.  berries  rubbed  through  a  colander  and 
mixed  with  1|  c.  sugar. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

INVALID   COOKERY 

Liquid  Diet 

1. 

Milk.                                         5.  Gruels. 

2. 

Broths,  beef  tea.                      6.  Cream  soups. 

3. 

Albumen  drinks.                      7.  Beverages,  etc. 

4. 

Eggnog. 

Light  or  Soft  Diet 

1. 

Cream  soups.                            6.  Junket. 

2. 

Soft-cooked  eggs.                     7.  Creamed  sweetbreads. 

3. 

Milk  toast.                                8.  Creamed  chicken. 

4. 

Cereals.                                     9.  Light  puddings. 

5. 

Soft  custards.                         10.  Gelatine  desserts,  etc. 

Convalescent  Diet 

1. 

Soups.                                        6.  Cooked  fruits. 

2. 

Broiled  tender  meats  and       7.  Baked  custards. 

fish.                                        8.  Light  desserts. 

3. 

Baked,  creamed  potatoes.       9..  Any  simple  easily  digested 

4. 

Some  light  vegetables.                     foods. 

5. 

Simple  salads. 

Foods  to  Avoid  for  Invalids  and  Children 

1. 

Pastry.                                        7.  Any  fried  food. 

2. 

Rich  cakes.                               8.  Hot  breads. 

3. 

Veal.                                '          9.  Baked  beans. 

4. 

Pork.                                        10.  Tea  and  coffee  (for  chil- 

5. 

Sausage.                                             dren). 

6. 

Lobster.                                   11.  Alcoholic  beverages. 

184 

INVALID   COOKERY  185 

12.  Any  highly  seasoned  or  stimulating  food  or  beverage. 

13.  All  foods  difficult  of  digestion. 

To  set  an  Invalid's  Tray.  —  The  tray  should  be  of  a  size 
to  hold  easily  any  dishes  placed  upon  it.  Cover  it  with  a 
clean  linen  doily.  In  cases  of  contagious  diseases  paper 
doilies  may  be  used  in  serving  and  afterwards  be  burned ; 
and  all  dishes  should  be  sterilized  in  boiling  water.  Arrange 
the  tray  in  the  same  relative  position  as  the  cover  in  setting 
a  table.  Use  the  daintiest  dishes  to  be  obtained.  Place  a 
single  blossom  on  the  tray. 

In  serving  children  a  slightly  fantastic  arrangement  of 
foods  which  will  appeal  to  the  imagination  will  often  be  the 
means  of  causing  children  to  take  the  necessary  nourish- 
ment. Never  serve  large  portions  of  food,  or  the  sight  of  it 
may  take  away  the  appetite. 

LIQUID   DIET 

Milk.  —  As  milk  forms  a  clot  by  the  action  of  the  enzyme, 
rennin,  as  soon  as  it  reaches  the  stomach,  it  should  be  regarded 
as  a  solid  food  and  not  a  beverage.  When  taken,  it  should  be 
sipped  slowly  that  the  clots  formed  may  be  small  and  hence 
more  easily  digested.  The  digestibility  of  milk  may  be  in- 
creased by  the  addition  of  lime  water  or  a  starch  gruel. 
(See  milk,  page  108.) 

Infants  have  no  starch-digesting  enzymes  present  in  the 
saliva  or  pancreatic  juice  until  they  are  about  one  year  old, 
hence  cannot  digest  starchy  foods.  Any  starch  given  to 
them  should  be  dextrinized  with  heat  or  by  the  action  of  the 
enzyme  diastase  present  in  malt.  Starch  gruels  should  be 
dextrinized  by  the  addition  of  some  commercial  malt  extract 
before  being  added  to  milk  to  be  given  to  children  under 
one  year  of  age. 


186  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Milk  for  invalids  may  be  clotted  by  the  addition  of  rennin 
in  the  form  of  junket  tablets.  Bacteria  grow  very  rapidly 
in  milk,  so  care  should  be  taken  to  obtain  the  purest  milk 
possible.  If  there  is  the  slightest  doubt  as  to  the  purity  of 
the  supply,  the  milk  should  be  sterilized  or  Pasteurized  before 
it  is  used. 

SteriUzed  Milk 

Fill  f  pt.  bottle  with  milk  to  within  1^  inches  of  the  top ;  cork 
with  sterile  cotton.  Stand  in  a  steamer  of  cold  water,  having 
the  water  surround  bottles  to  three-fourths  their  height.  Heat 
water  gradually  until  it  nearly  reaches  the  boiling  point  and  keep 
at  this  temperature  for  ten  minutes  or  longer.  Remove  from  water 
and  cool  quickly. 

If  the  milk  is  to  be  Pasteurized,  raise  the  temperature  of  the 
water  to  167°  F.  and  keep  at  that  point  for  twenty  minutes. 

Albumenized  Milk 
White  of  1  egg  1  c.  milk 

Place  egg  and  milk  in  a  covered  glass  jar.  Shake  till  they 
are  thoroughly  blended.  It  may  be  sweetened  and  flavored. 
Serve  immediately. 

Junket 

1  c.  milk  I  ts.  salt 

2  tb.  sugar  |  junket  tablet  dissolved 

-    in  1  ts.  water 
Heat  milk  until  lukewarm,   100°  F.,   add  sugar  and  salt,  stir 
in  the  junket  quickly.     Pour  into  the  dish  in  which  it  is  to  be 
served.     Let  stand  in  a  warm  place  until  set,  then  chill  and  serve 
with  cream. 

Meat  Broths.  —  Broths  may  be  rnade  from  beef,  mutton, 
or  chicken.  As  ordinarily  made  the  food  value  of  broths  is 
very  low,  the  albumen  and  globulin  of  the  meat  being  coagu- 


INVALID  COOKERY  187 

lated  by  heat  and  removed  by  straining,  the  extractives 
alone  remaining  in  the  broth.  To  prepare  meat  for  broths 
wash  it  carefully  with  a  wet  cloth  and  remove  all  fat. 

Beef  Tea,  No.  i 

1  lb.  beef  from  round  1  pt.  cold  water 

^  ts.  salt 
Prepare  meat  as  given  in  directions  for  broths  and  cut  in  small 
cubes.  Put  in  a  fruit  jar  with  the  water  and  salt,  and  let  stand 
^  hour.  Place  in  a  pan  of  cold  water  on  a  trivet,  having  the  water 
in  the  pan  as  high  as  the  contents  of  the  jar.  Heat  gradually  in 
the  oven  or  on  top  of  the  stove,  not  letting  the  water  become  hotter 
than  180°  F.  Keep  at  this  temperature  for  two  hours,  strain  and 
season.  In  reheating  care  should  be  taken  not  to  coagulate  the 
juices. 

Beef  Tea,  No.  2 

Remove  all  fat  from  1  lb.  round  steak.  Chop  meat  fine.  Add 
1  pt.  cold  water  and  ^  ts.  salt,  and  let  stand  in  ice  box  from  1  to 
3  hours.  Heat  very  gently,  stirring  all  the  time  until  it  just  changes 
color.  Pour  into  wire  strainer  and  press  the  meat.  Season  liquid 
with  salt  and  reheat  very  carefully,  not  to  coagulate  the  juices. 
Do  not  remove  the  brown  flakes  if  they  form. 

Mutton  Broth 

2  lb.  mutton  or  lamb  cut  1  tb.  boiled  rice 

from  forequarter  or  leg  |  ts.  salt 

2  pts.  water 
Prepare  meat  as  for  broths.     Cut  in  small  pieces.     Add  water 
and  salt.    Cook  slowly  until  meat  is  tender  and  bones  clean.    Strain, 
cool,  remove  every  particle  of  fat.     Reheat  and  add  boiled  rice. 

Gruels.  —  Gruels  are  a  liquid  preparation  of  some  cereal 
and  water  or  milk.  They  must  be  cooked  thoroughly  that 
the  starch  may  be  well  hydrated,  and  then  be  strained  to 


188  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

remove  any  cellulose.  Milk  should  be  added  just  before 
serving  and  the  gruel  then  be  reheated.  Flour,  barley,  and 
cracker  gruels  act  as  astringents. 

Flour  Gruel 
2  c.  milk  2  tb.  flour 

J  ts.  salt 
Scald  milk;   thicken  with  flour  wet  in  cold  milk.     Cook  over 
hot  water  30  minutes.     Add  salt.     Serve. 

Oatmeal  Gruel 

1  c.  oatmeal  ^  ts.  salt 
3  c.  boiling  water  Milk 

Add  oatmeal  to  boiling  water  and  salt.     Cook  in  double  boiler 
2  hours.     Strain.     Add  milk  or  cream  and  reheat. 

Cracker  Gruel 

2  butter  crackers  1  c.  milk 

I  ts.  salt 
Roll  crackers  and  add  to  scalded  milk.     Cook  5  minutes  in 
double  boiler.    Add  salt  and  serve. 

Albumen  Drinks.  —  Add  the  white  of  egg,  beaten  only 
enough  to  break  the  fiber  slightly,  to  any  liquid,  as  milk, 
water,  fruit  juices,  adding  sugar  to  taste. 

Eggnog 

1  egg  beaten  separately  f  c.  milk 

1  tb.  sugar  J  ts.  vanilla  or  a  little 

Few  grains  salt  nutmeg 

Add  sugar,  salt,  milk,  flavoring,  to  beaten  yolk.     Strain,  add 
the  beaten  white.     Stir  well  before  serving. 

Apple  Water 
1  large  sour  apple  2  ts.  sugar 

1  c.  boiling  water  Lemon  to  taste 


INVALID   COOKERY  189 

Wipe  and  core  apple.  Put  sugar  in  center  and  bake  till  tender; 
iiKiwli.  Pour  on  the  water,  let  stand  ^  hour,  and  strain.  Add 
lemon  juice.     Used  as  a  cooling  drink  for  fever  patients. 

Lemonade 

^  lemon  f  glass  water  2  tb.  sugar 

Add  sugar  and  water  to  the  lemon.  Soda  water,  Apollinaris, 
or  Seltzer  water  may  be  used. 

All  fruit  drinks  are  improved  if  sweetened  with  syrup  instead 
of  sugar. 

Syrup  for  Fruit  Beverages 

Boil  1  c.  sugar  and  1  c.  water  for  10  minutes.  Cool,  bottle,  and 
use  as  desired. 

Flaxseed  Lemonade 

2  tb.  whole  flaxseed  Lemon  juice 

1  pt.  boiling  water  Sugar 

Pick  over  and  wash  flaxseed,  add  water,  and  cook  one  hour, 
keeping  just  below  the  boiling  point.  Strain,  add  lemon  and  sugar 
to  taste.     Add  more  water  if  too  thick. 

Good  in  kidney  troubles  and  also  soothing  to  the  throat  in 
bronchial  affections. 

LIGHT   DIET 

Toast.  —  Bread  for  toast  should  be  at  least  24  hours  old.  It 
is  toasted  to  extract  moisture,  to  dextrinize  the  starch,  and  to 
make  it  more  palatable  and  digestible.  The  slices  should  be 
cut  thin  and  toasted  v^ith  a  steady,  even  heat  to  evaporate 
the  moisture  and  brown  the  slice  without  burning  it.  Serve 
at  once. 

Water  Toast 
Toast  2  slices  of  bread  until  very  dry  and  a  light  brown.     Have 
1  pt.  boiling  water  in  a  shallow  pan,  add  1  ts.  salt.     Dip  the  toast 
quickly  into  the  water,  remove  to  a  hot  dish,  spread  with  butter, 
and  serve  very  hot. 


190  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Milk  Toast 

Toast  2  slices  of  bread.  Scald  f  c.  milk,  add  |  tb.  butter, 
5  ts.  salt,  pour  over  the  toast.     Serve  very  hot. 

Cream  Toast 

Thicken  f  c.  milk  with  1  tb.  flour  wet  in  cold  milk.  Cook 
over  hot  water  20  minutes,  add  §  tb.  butter  and  |  ts.  salt.  Pour 
over  2  or  3  slices  of  toast.     Serve  very  hot. 

Broiled  Beef  Cakes 

Scrape  round  steak  fine.  Season  with  salt  and  pepper.  Make 
into  small  flat  cakes  and  broil  over  a  clear  fire;  or  heat  a  frying 
pan  very  hot,  rub  it  over  with  butter,  and  cook  the  cakes  two  or 
three  minutes,  browning  on  both  sides. 

Lemon  Cream 

2  eggs  2  tb.  sugar 

Juice  and  grated  rind  of  ^  lemon 
Beat  the  yolks  very  light,  add  sugar  and  lemon,  and  place  the 
bowl  in  a  dish  of  boiling  water  on  the  fire.  Stir  till  the  mixture 
begins  to  stiffen,  then  add  the  beaten  whites  and  stir  two  minutes 
longer,  or  till  the  whole  resembles  very  thick  cream ;  remove  from 
the  fire  and  let  cool.     Serve  in  small  glass  dishes. 

Orange  Cream 

Prepare  as  above,  using  orange  juice  in  place  of  lemon. 
For  other  recipes  for  Invalid  Cookery  see  recipes  under  various 
headings. 


CHAPTER  XX 

TABLE  SERVICE 

In  setting  the  table,  arrange  all  dishes  with  system; 
never  place  them  carelessly  upon  the  table.  An  asbestos 
covering  may  be  placed  on  the  table  to  prevent  warm  dishes 
from  injuring  its  polish.  Cover  the  table  with  a  felt  or 
covering  of  canton  flannel,  or  even  with  an  old  but  clean 
tablecloth ;  over  this,  place  the  tablecloth,  having  the 
creases  straight.  Put  a  centerpiece  of  linen  on  the  table- 
cloth, and  in  the  center  of  this  place  a  vase  of  flowers  or  a 
small  growing  plant. 

See  that  the  vinegar  and  oil  cruets,  salt  and  pepper  bottles 
are  filled  and  wiped  clean.  Plan  for  all  the  dishes  and  silver 
that  will  be  required  during  the  meal,  putting  them  in  their 
proper  places,  thus  avoiding  confusion  in  serving. 

Lay  a  "  service  "  plate  for  each  person.  Do  not  allow 
the  ^'  cover  "  (space  in  front  of  each  person)  to  be  without  a 
plate  until  just  before  the  dessert.  At  the  right  of  the  plate, 
place  the  knives,  soup  spoon,  and  oyster  fork.  Place  the 
glass  above  the  knives,  a  little  to  right.  At  the  left  of  the 
plate,  place  the  forks,  small  spoons,  and  napkin.  Above  the 
forks,  place  the  bread  and  butter  plate  with  a  butter  spreader 
lying  across  it.  Place  carving  knife  and  fork  and  table 
spoons  to  the  right  of  person  who  is  to  serve. 

All  dishes  that  are  to  be  heated  should  be  placed  in  a 
warming  oven.  On  a  side  table,  place  all  other  dishes  that 
will  be  needed  during  the  meal. 

191 


192 


DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


For  breakfast,  arrange  the  coffeepot,  sugar,  creamer,  cups, 
and  saucers  in  a  semicircle  in  front  of  the  hostess,  placing 
each  cup  in  its  saucer  on  the  table  at  the  left.  The  cereal 
dishes  should  be  placed  at  the  left  of  the  one  who  is  to  serve 
the  cereal. 

TABLE  SETTING 
Individual  Cover 
SS  TO  30  Incites 


1.  "  Service  "  or  "place  "  plate.  3.   Soup  spoon. 

2.  Knife.  4.    Tea  spoons. 

5.  Cup  and  saucer  (to  be  placed  here  during  meal). 

6.  Tumbler.  8.   Forks. 

7.  Bread  and  butter  plate.  9.   Napkin. 


In  serving,  the  waitress  should  keep  in  her  hand  a  large 
folded  napkin  for  handling  all  dishes,  using  a  tray  only  for 
carrying  small  dishes.  Put  a  linen  doily  on  all  trays  and 
on  dishes  to  hold  all  breadstuffs  and  cakes,  and  on  the 
plates  under  the  finger  bowls. 

When  the  meal  is  ready,  put  the  butter  on  the  table  and 
fill  the  glasses  with  cold  water.  Announce  the  meal  by  say- 
ing, ^'  Dinner  (or  whatever  meal  it  is)  is  served. '' 


TABLE  SERVICE  193 

Stand  at  the  left  of  the  person  who  is  serving  and  take 
with  the  napkin  each  plate  as  it  is  served,  carrying  to  the 
person  for  whom  it  is  intended.  If  it  is  a  soup  plate,  set  it 
down  upon  the  service  plate.  If  it  is  the  plate  of  the  meat 
course,  remove  the  service  plate  and  set  the  other  plate  in 
its  place.  Set  dishes  down  and  remove  them  from  the  right 
of  the  person  whom  you  are  serving ;  pass  to  the  left  any  dish 
from  which  they  are  to  serve  themselves,  holding  the  dish 
low  and  firmly. 

See  that  each  person  is  kept  supplied  with  bread,  and  that 
the  glasses  are  filled.  When  each  course  is  finished,  remove 
the  plates,  one  at  a  time,  and  then  the  platter,  the  large 
dishes,  and  all  other  dishes  not  needed  for  the  following 
courses.  Do  not  pile  the  dishes  upon  each  other  in  removing 
them. 

Before  the  dessert  is  served,  brush  the  crumbs  from  the 
table  using  a  crumb  scraper,  or  brush  the  crumbs  with  a  folded 
napkin  to  a  plate.  After  the  last  course,  remove  the  plates 
and  place  a  finger  bowl  in  front  of  each  person.  Set  the 
finger  bowl  on  a  plate  with  a  doily  and  fill  one-third  full  of 
fresh  water.     Put  a  half  slice  of  lemon  in  the  bowl. 

Do  not  let  the  table  become  disordered  during  a  meal. 
Move  quietly  and  be  alert  to  anticipate  every  need  of  the 
guests. 

When  you  are  hostess,  as  well  as  cook  and  waitress,  leave 
the  table  quietly  when  necessary,  removing  dishes  and  bring- 
ing others  as  needed.  Special  care  must  be  taken  that  all 
is  in  readiness  before  sitting  down  at  the  table. 

When  the  meal  is  over,  set  the  chairs  in  place  and  brush 
up  all  crumbs  from  the  floor  before  removing  dishes.  Re- 
move table  dishes  to  pantry  or  kitchen.  Put  away  any 
food  that  remains,  on  dishes  kept  for  that  purpose.  Scrape 
all  dishes  well,  using  a  scraper  with  a  rubber  edge,  or  a  crust 


194  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

of  bread.  Pile  dishes  neatly  in  place,  putting  those  of  a 
size  together. 

Brush  crumbs  from  tablecloth,  fold  in  its  creases,  and  put 
away.  Put  the  dining  room  in  order  before  washing  the 
dishes. 

Wash  the  dishes  with  hot  soapy  water,  rinse  with  hot 
water,  and  wipe  with  dry  towels  until  perfectly  dry.  Put 
the  dishes  on  a  tray  and  carry  to  their  proper  places. 

Breakfast  is  usually  a  simple  meal  and  is  served  in  a  man- 
ner to  suit  the  needs  of  the  individual  family,  but  if  a  course 
breakfast  is  desired,  serve  it  in  the  following  order : 

1.  Fruit. 

2.  Cereal  with  cream  or  top  milk. 

3.  Simple  meat  or  egg  dish. 
Rolls,  toast,  etc. 

Coffee  or  some  beverage.  • 

4.  Griddle  cakes  or  waffles  and  syrup. 

Note.  —  Students  make  list  of  dishes  that  may  be  served  for 
breakfast  or  "breakfast  possibilities."  Write  breakfast  menus  for 
different  seasons  of  the  year,  estimating  cost.  Cook  and  serve  a 
breakfast. 

Order  of  Courses  for  a  Formal  Dinner.  -^  1.  Canapes. 

2.  Raw  oysters   or   clams,  served   on  the  half  shell   on 

crushed  ice  with    lemon  and   grated  horseradish. 
Wafers. 

3.  Soup.     Crackers,  croutons,  or  toast  sticks. 

4.  Fish.     Potatoes  (boiled,  mashed,  or  fried).     Shced  cu- 

cumbers.    Brown  bread. 

5.  Meat  Course.     Roast,  two  vegetables,  rolls  or  bread, 

jelly,  pickles,  etc. 

6.  Frozen  water  ice. 

7.  Salad.     Crackers,  or    toasted    cheese    rounds,  cheese 

balls,  etc.    ■ 


TABLE  SERVICE  195 

8.  Dcssort. 

9.  Crackers  and  cheese. 
10.  Coffee. 

Order  of  Courses  for  a  Family  Dinner. 

1.  Soup. 

2.  Meat,  etc. 

3.  Salad. 

4.  Dessert. 

A  formal  dinner  is  not  often  served  in  the  ordinary  house- 
hold, but  if  a  dinner  of  fewer  courses  is  served,  they  are  ar- 
ranged in  the  same  relative  order  as  in  a  formal  dinner. 

Note. —  Students  write  list  of  "dinner  possibilities,"  arranging 
them  under  "soup,"  "fish,"  etc.  Write  dinner  jnenus  for  family 
dinners  for  different  seasons  of  the  year,  estimating  cost.  Cook  and 
serve  a  dinner. 

Luncheon.  —  A  luncheon  menu  is  similar  to  a  dinner  menu, 
with  the  exception  that  a  fruit  is  often  served  first,  and  a 
lighter  meat  dish  is  served  in  place  of  a  roast. 

For  a  family  luncheon  or  supper  some  one  hot  nutritious 
dish  is  served  with  a  light  salad,  fruit,  etc. 

Note.  —  Each  class  is  to  serve  in  turn  a  breakfast,  luncheon, 
and  dinner,  planning  menus  and  estimating  cost. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
DIET  AND   NUTRITION 

The  amount  of  food  required  by  an  individual  will  neces- 
sarily vary  with  the  age,  occupation,  and  temperament  of 
the  individual,  and  the  climate  in  which  he  lives.  However, 
by  many  series  of  experiments  and  studies  of  diets,  certain 
definite  standards  of  the  amount  of  food  needed  under  vari- 
ous conditions  have  been  established  and  form  a  guide  which 
may  be  profitably  followed.  The  total  food  requirement  for 
a  given  time  is  spoken  of  as  a  dietary. 

The  food  must  furnish  the  requisite  amount  of  heat  and 
energy  needed  by  the  body  under  various  conditions,  and 
also  furnish  material  for  growth  of  new  cells  and  repair  for 
those  that  are  constantly  breaking  down. 

Heat  and  Energy  Requirement.  —  Foods  which  contain 
carbon  and  hydrogen  in  a  form  in  which  they  can  be  oxidized 
by  the  body  yield  heat  and  other  forms  of  energy  to  the 
body.  The  fuel  value  of  a  food  is  estimated  by  the  amount 
of  heat  it  will  give  when  oxidized,  and  is  measured  by  a  heat 
unit  called  a  calorie. 

A  calorie  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  1  pound 
of  water  4°  F.,  or  1  kilogram  of  water  1°  C. 

The  body  will  require  varying  amounts  of  heat  and  energy 
under  different  conditions. 
Man  sleeping  requires  ......      65  calories  per  hour 

Man  sitting  at  rest  requires  ....    100  calories  per  hour 

Man  at  light  muscular  work  requires     170  calories  per  hour 

196 


DIET  AND   NUTRITION  197 

Man  at  active  muscular  work  requires  290  calories  per  hour 
Man  at  severe  muscular  work  requires  450  calories  per  hour 
Man  at  very  severe  muscular  work 

requires 600  calories  per  hour 

{Atwater  and  Benedict) 

FOOD  REQUIREMENT  AS   MODIFIED  BY  AGE  AND  SEX 

A  woman  requires    .     .  .8  amount  of  food  needed  by  a  man 

Boy  14  to  17  years        .  .8  amount  of  food  needed  by  a  man 

Children  10  to  13  years  .6  amount  of  food  needed  by  a  man 

Children    6  to    9  years  .5  amount  of  food  needed  b}^  a  man 

Children    2  to    5  years  .4  amount  of  food  needed  by  a  man 

Less  than  2  years     .     .  .3  amount  of  food  needed  by  a  man 

APPROXIMATE  FOOD  REQUIREMENT  FOR  ONE  DAY 
(H.  C.  SHERMAN) 

Man  doing  light  muscular  work     .     .  3000  to  3500  calories 

Woman  doing  light  muscular  work    .  2700                calories 

Boy  14  to  17  years 2500  to  3000  calories 

Girl  14  to  17  years 2200  to  2600  calories 

Children  10  to  13  years    .     .     .     .     .  1800  to  2200  calories 

Children    6  to    9  years 1400  to  2000  calories 

Children    2  to    5  years    .....  1200  to  1500  calories 

Children    1  to    2  years    .....  900  to  1200  calories 

.  Protein  Requirement.  —  The  cells  of  the  body  are  con- 
stantly breaking  down  and  in  the  growing  body  new  cells 
are  forming,  hence  food  must  furnish  material  for  growth 
and  repair. 

As  the  cells  contain  nitrogen,  a  food  which  contains  nitro- 
gen in  a  form  in  which  the  body  can  assimilate  it  must  be 
furnished.  Protein  foods  contain  16  per  cent  nitrogen  and 
are  the  only  foods  which  do  contain  it,  so  they  are  absolutely 
necessary  for  the  body. 


198  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

The  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  protein  are  first  split  off  by 
the  body  and  oxidized,  yielding  heat  and  energy  before  the 
nitrogen  is  available  for  tissue  building.  The  broken-down 
protein  of  the  cells  leaves  the  body  in  the  form  of  urea  and 
other  compounds  excreted  by  the  kidneys.  The  amount  of 
protein  thus  lost  to  the  body  each  day  must  be  replaced  by 
protein  foods  in  order  that  the  body  may  maintain  a  protein 
equilibrium.  The  amount  required  is  variously  estimated 
by  different  authorities.  However,  as  a  general  estimate, 
about  10  to  12  per  cent  of  the  total  energy  requirement  should 
be  furnished  by  protein  foods.  Thus  in  a  dietary  requiring 
3000  calories  per  day,  from  300  to  360  calories  should  be 
furnished  by  protein  foods.  As  each  gram  of  protein  fur- 
nishes 4  calories,  the  total  amount  required  would  be  from 
75  to  90  grams. 

The  average  American  dietary  is  very  high  in  protein 
content,  furnishing  about  125  grams  (about  4  ounces)  of 
protein  per  day.  Protein  foods  not  required  for  cell  growth 
and  repair  are  not  stored  in  the  body,  but  are  eliminated  by 
the  kidneys ;  hence  an  increased  protein  diet  means  in- 
creased protein  elimination. 

Note.  —  Students  compute  food  value  of  amount  of  common 
foodstuffs  obtained  for  ten  cents.  Compute  dietaries  of  amount 
of  food  required  by  persons  of  various  ages  and  occupations,  by 
the  Percentage  Composition  Method,  estimating  cost. 


DIET   AND   NUTRITION  199 

PERCENTAGE   COMPOSITION  METHOD 

DicUiry  for  Man  doing  Light  Muscular   Work 

Calorie  Requirement,  3000  to  3500  calories. 
Protein  Requirement,  300  to  420  calories. 


Protein 

Fats 

Carbohy- 

Food 

Amount 

Per  Cent 
of  Lb. 

Percent 
of  Lb. 

drates 

Per  Cent 

OF  Lb. 

Calories 
Furnished 

Breakfast 

Banana      .... 

Hb. 

0.2 

0.1 

3.5 

65.0 

Oatmeal     .... 

1  oz. 

1.0 

0.4 

4.1 

112.5 

Milk 

Ub. 

1.1 

1.3 

1.6 

103.3+ 

Eggs 

Hb. 

3.2 

2.3 

— 

158.7  + 

Ham 

1  oz. 

0.8 

2.0 

— 

102.1+ 

Bread    

t\  lb. 

0.7 

0.1 

4.4 

100.0 

Butter 

1  oz. 

— 

2.6 

— 

106.5 

Coffee 

1  cup 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Sugar    

1  oz. 

— 

— 

6.2 

109.3 

Dinner 

Beef,  round    . 

2  oz. 

2.3 

1.6 

— 

111.2+ 

Cabbage    .... 

4  oz. 

0.3 

— 

1.2 

28.7+ 

Corn 

2  oz. 

0.3 

0.1 

2.4 

55.0 

Potatoes    .... 

8  oz. 

0.9 

0.05 

7.3 

147.5 

Bread 

lib. 

1.5 

0.2 

8.8 

200.0 

Butter 

h  oz. 

— 

2.6 

— 

106.5 

Sugar    

1  oz. 

— 

— 

6.2 

109.3 

Dessert,  as  cake 

2  oz. 

0.7 

1.1 

7.9 

203.7 

Walnuts     .... 

j\  lb. 

0.5 

2.2 

0.5 

104.1 

Supper 

Cream  Celery  Soup 

8oz. 

1.0 

1.4 

2.5 

117.5 

Cream  Crackers 

1  oz. 

0.6 

0.7 

4.3 

120.3 

Bread 

Ub. 

1.5 

0.2 

8.8 

200.0 

Butter 

h  oz. 

— 

2.6 

— 

106.5 

Cheese       .... 

1  oz. 

1.5 

2.1 

0.1 

117.8- 

Buttermilk     .     .     . 

8  oz. 

1.5 

0.2 

2.4 

80.0 

Apples 

12  oz. 

0.2 

0.2 

8.1 

142.5 

Cake 

2  oz. 

0.7 

1.1 

7.9 

203.7 

Total      .... 

20.5 

25.15 

88.2 

3002.7 

200 


DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


AVERAGE    COMPOSITION   OF   FOODS 

Percentage  Composition 
Bulletin  142,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture. 


Food  Materials  as 
Purchased 

Refuse 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Ash 

No.  OF 
Calories 
per  Lb. 

Animal  Food 

Per  Ct. 

PerCt. 

Per  Ct. 

Per 
Ct. 

Per  Ct. 

Per 
Ct. 

Beef 

Porterhouse  steak 

12.7 

52.4 

19.1 

17.9 

— 

0.8 

1100 

Loin       .... 

13.3 

52.5 

16.1 

17.5 

— 

0.9 

1025 

Ribs       .... 

20.8 

43.8 

13.9 

21.2 

— 

0.7 

1135 

Flank    .... 

10.2 

54.0 

17.0 

19.0 

— 

0.7 

1105 

Round  .... 

7.2 

60.7 

19.0 

12.8 

— 

LO 

890 

Veal 

Breast   .... 

21.3 

52.0 

15.4 

11.0 

— 

0.8 

745 

Leg 

14.2 

60.1 

15.5 

7.9 

— 

0.9 

625 

Mutton 

Leg,  hind  .     .     . 

18.4 

51.2 

15.1 

14.7 

— 

0.8 

890 

Loin  chops      .     . 

16.0 

42.0 

13.5 

28.3 

— 

0.7 

1415 

Flank    .... 

9.9 

39.0 

13.8 

36.9 

— 

0.6 

1770 

Lamh 

Breast   .... 

19.1 

45.5 

15.4 

19.1 

— 

0.8 

1075 

Leg,  hind  .     .     . 

17.4 

52.9 

15.9 

13.6 

— 

0.9 

860 

Pork,  fresh 

Ham,  hind  leg     . 

10.7 

48.0 

13.5 

25.9 

— 

0.8 

1320 

Loin  chops 

19.7 

41.8 

13.4 

24.2 

— 

0.8 

1245 

Ham,  smoked 

13.6 

34.8 

14.2 

33.4 

— 

4.2 

1635 

Salt  pork   .     .     . 

— 

7.9 

1.9 

86.2 

— 

3.9 

3555 

Bacon    .... 

7.7 

17.4 

9.1 

62.2 

"  — 

4.1 

2715 

Chicken,  fowls    . 

25.9 

47.1 

13.7 

12.3 

— 

0.7 

765 

Turkey       .     .     . 

22.7 

42.4 

16.1 

18.4 

— 

0.8 

1060 

Fish 

Cod,  fresh,  dressed 

29.9 

58.5 

11.1 

0.2 

— 

0.8 

220 

Perch,  dressed     . 

35.1 

50.7 

12.8 

0.7 

0.9 

275 

Cod,  salt    .     .     . 

24.9 

40.2 

16.0 

0.4 

18.5 

325 

Salmon,  canned  . 

— 

63.5 

21.8 

12.1 

— 

2.6 

915 

Sardines     .     .     . 

5.0 

53.6 

23.7 

12.1 

— 

5.3 

950 

Oysters,  solids     . 

— 

88.3 

6.0 

Eggs      .... 

11.2 

65.5 

13.1 

9.3 



0.9 

635 

Butter  .... 

— 

11.0 

1.0 

85.0 

— 

3.0 

3410 

Milk,  whole    . 

— 

87.0 

3.3 

4.0 

5.0 

0.7 

310 

Milk,  skim 



90.5 

3.4 

0.3 

5.1 

0.7 

165 

Buttermilk 



91.0 

3.0 

0.5 

4.8 

0.7 

160 

Cream  .... 

— 

74.0 

2.5 

18.5 

4.5 

0.5 

865 

Cheese  .... 

— 

34.2 

25.9 

33.7 

2.4 

3.8 

1885 

DIET   AND    NUTRITION- 


201 


AVERAGE   COMPOSITION   OF   FOODS  — Continued 


Food  Materials  as 

Refuse 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbo- 

Ash 

No.   OF 

Calories 

Purchased 

hydrates 

PER  Lb. 

PerCt. 

Per  Ct. 

Per  Ct. 

Per 
Ct. 

Per  Ct. 

Per 

Ct. 

Vegetable  Foods 

Entire  wheat  flour 

— - 

11.4 

13.8 

1.9 

71.9 

1.0 

1650 

Graham  flour 

— . 

11.3 

13.3 

2.2 

71.4 

1.8 

1645 

Wheat  flour,  high 

grade   and  me- 

dium .... 

— 

12.0 

11.4 

1.0 

75.1 

0.5 

1635 

Macaroni   ... 

— 

10.3 

13.4 

0.9 

74.1 

1.3 

1645 

Corn  meal .     .     . 

— 

12.5 

9.2 

1.9 

75.4 

1.0 

1635 

Oat    breakfast 

food  .... 

— 

7.7 

16.7 

7.3 

66.2 

2.1 

1800 

Rice       .... 

— 

12.3 

8.0 

0.3 

79.0 

0.4 

1620 

White  bread  .     . 

— 

35.3 

9.2 

1.3 

53.1 

1.1 

1200 

Graham  bread     . 

— 

35.7 

8.9 

1.8 

52.1 

1.5 

1195 

Cake      .... 

— 

19.9 

6.3 

9.0 

63.3 

1.5 

1630 

Cream  crackers  . 

— 

6.8 

9.7 

12.1 

69.7 

1.7 

1925 

Sugars,  etc. 

Molasses    .     .     . 

— 

— 

— 

— . 

70.0 



1225 

Candy  .... 

96.0 

1680 

Honey  .... 

81.0 

1420 

Sugar,  granulated 

100.0 

1750 

Maple  syrup  . 

71.4 

1250 

Vegetables 

Beans,  dried  .     . 

— 

12.6 

22.5 

1.8 

59.6 

3.5 

1520 

Beans,     string, 

fresh  .... 

7.0 

83.0 

2.1 

0.3 

6.9 

0.7 

170 

Beets     .... 

20.0 

70.0 

1.3 

0.1 

7.7 

0.9 

160 

Cabbage     .     .     . 

15.0 

77.7 

1.4 

0.2 

4.8 

0.9 

115 

Celery   .... 

20.0 

75.6 

0.9 

0.1 

2.6 

0.8 

65 

Corn,  green ,  edible 

portion  . 

. — - 

75.4 

3.1 

1.1 

19.7 

0.7 

440 

Cucumbers     .     . 

15.0 

81.0 

0.7 

0.2 

2.6 

0.4 

65 

Lettuce      .     .     . 

15.0 

80.5 

1.0 

0.2 

2.5 

0.8 

65 

Onions  .... 

10.0 

78.9 

1.4 

0.3 

8.9 

0.5 

190 

Mushrooms     . 

— 

88.1 

3.5 

0.4 

6.8 

1.2 

185 

Peas,  dried      .     . 



9.5 

24.6 

1.0 

62.0 

2.9 

1565 

Peas,     fresh. 

shelled    .     .     . 

— 

74.6 

7.0 

0.5 

16.9 

1.0 

440 

Potatoes     .     .     . 

20.0 

62.6 

1.8 

0.1 

14.7 

0.8 

295 

Spinach      .     .     . 

— 

92.3 

2.1 

0.3 

3.2 

2.1 

95 

Tomatoes  .     .     . 



94.3 

0.9 

0.4 

3.9 

0.5 

100 

Turnips      .     .     . 

30.0 

62.7 

0.9 

0.1 

5.7 

0.6 

120 

202 


DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


AVERAGE   COMPOSITION   OF  FOOBS  — Continued 


Food  Materials  as 
Purchased 

Refuse 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Ash 

No.  OP 

Calories 

PER  Lb. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. ' 

Per 

Per  ct. 

Per 

Canned  Vegetables 

ct. 

ct. 

Baked  beans  .     . 

— 

68.9 

6.9 

2.5 

19.6 

2.1 

555 

Peas,  green     .     . 

— 

85.3 

3.6 

0.2 

9.8 

1.1 

235 

Corn,  green     .     . 

— 

76.1 

2.8 

1.2 

19.0 

0.9 

430 

Fruits,  etc.,  fresh 

Apples  .... 

25.0 

63.3 

0.3 

0.3 

10.8 

0.3 

190 

Bananas     . 

35.0 

48.9 

0.8 

0.4 

14.3 

0.6 

260 

Grapes  .... 

25.0 

58.0 

1.0 

1.2 

14.4 

0.4 

295 

Oranges 

27.0 

63.4 

0.6 

0.1 

8.5 

0.4 

150 

Strawberries  . 

5.0 

85.9 

0.9 

0.6 

7.0 

0.6 

150 

Watermelon    .     . 

59.4 

37.5 

0.2 

0.1 

2.7 

0.1 

50 

Fruits,  dried 

Apples  .... 

28.1 

Dates    .... 

10.0 

13.8 

1.9 

2.5 

70.6 

1.2 

1275 

Figs       .... 

— 

18.8 

4.3 

0.3 

74.2 

2.4 

1280 

Nuts 

Almonds     .     .     . 

45.0 

2.7 

11.5 

30.2 

95 

1.1 

1515" 

Cocoanuts 

48.8 

7.2 

2.9 

25.9 

14.3 

0.9 

1295 

Hickory  nuts 

62.2 

1.4 

5.8 

25. 

4.3 

0.8 

1145 

Peanuts 

24.5 

6.9 

19.5 

29.1 

18.5 

1.5 

1775 

Miscellaneous 

Chocolate  .     .     . 

— 

5.9 

12.9 

48.7 

30.3 

2.2 

5625 

Cocoa,  powdered 

— 

4.6 

21.6 

28.9 

37.7 

7.2 

2160 

THE   "100  CALORIE  PORTION"  METHOD 

To  make  the  methods  of  determining  food  value  more 
graphic  and  more  easily  ascertained  in  everyday  life,  tables 
have  been  prepared  stating  the  weight  of  various  foods  re- 
quired to  furnish  "  100  calories/'  also  stating  their  approxi- 


mate bulk;  these  are  called 
portions. 


standard  "  or  "  100  calorie 


DIET   AND   NUTRITION  203 

Examples:  —  Srmill  ghiss  of  whole  milk  fumish(;s  100  cal- 
ories. 
1  hirge  egg  furnishes  100  calories. 
1  ordinary  pat. of  butter  furnishes  100  calories. 
This  method  makes  it  possible  to  determine  roughly  the 
amount  of  heat  and  other  forms  of  energy  furnished  in  the 
daily  diet. 

Note.  —  Student  weigh  out  100  calorie  portions  of  various  foods 
to  train  the  eye  to  estimate  quickly  the  approximate  values  of  foods. 
(See  table  of  100  calorie  portions.) 

TO  FIND   "100  CALORIE  PORTIONS"  FROM  PERCENT- 
AGE  COMPOSITION   TABLE    (H.   C.   SHERMAN) 

The  number  of  ounces  in  a  pound  (16  oz.)  is  to  the  num- 
ber of  calories  in  any  given  food  as  x  is  to  100  (calorie 
portion). 

Example  :  —  (Milk  325  calories  to  1  pound) 
16  (oz.) : 325  ::x:  100  =  4.9 
Hence  4.9  oz.  of  milk  will  yield  upon  oxidation  100  calories. 

Note.  —  Students  compute  100  calorie  portions  of  various  foods 
from  "Percentage  Composition  of  Food,"  comparing  results  with 
table  of  "100  Calorie  Portions."-  Compute  dietaries  of  amount 
of  food  required  by  persons  of  various  ages  and  occupations,  by  100 
Calorie  Portion  Method,  estimating  cost.  Cook  and  serve  a  dinner 
or  luncheon,  serving  the  food  in  100  calorie  portions . 


204 


DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 


100-CALORIE   PORTION   METHOD 

Dietary  for  Man  doing  Light  Muscular  Work 

Total  calorie  requirement 3000  to  3500  calories. 

Protein  requirement,  12%  total  caloi;ies    360  to    420  calories. 


Food 

Amount 

Protein 
Calories 

Fats 
Calories 

Carbo- 
hydrates 
Calories 

Total 
Calories 

Breakfast 

Prunes     .     . 

3 

3 

0 

97 

100 

Oat  meal      . 

If        large 

serving 

18 

0 

75 

100 

Milk  .     .     . 

Small  glass 

19 

52 

29 

100 

Eggs  .     .     . 

2  large 

64 

136 

— 

200 

Ham,  cooked 

Small  serv- 

ing 

14 

86 

— 

100 

Bread      .     . 

1  slice 

13 

6 

81 

100 

Butter     .     . 

1  pat 

0.5 

99.5 

0 

100 

Coffee      .     . 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Sugar       .     . 

3  teaspoons 

0 

0 

100 

100 

Dinner 

Beef,  round 

1  serving 

90 

10 

— 

100 

Cabbage 

3i  oz. 

10 

4 

36 

50 

Corn  .     .     . 

1  side  dish 

13 

10 

77 

100 

Potatoes, 

mashed     . 

1  serving 

10 

25 

65 

100 

Bread      .     . 

2  slices 

26 

12 

162 

200 

Butter     .     . 

1  pat 

0.5 

99.5 

0 

100 

Pickles    .     . 

1.4  oz. 

1.8 

1.5 

6.7 

10 

Tea     .     .     . 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Sugar      .     . 

3  teaspoons 

0 

0 

100 

100 

Apple  pie     . 

1  piece 

15 

96 

189 

300 

Walnuts 

6 

10    . 

83 

7 

100 

Supper 

Bean  soup   . 

1  large  plate 

20 

20 

60 

100 

Crackers 

3  Uneeda 

9.4 

20 

70.6 

100 

Cheese     .     . 

IHn.  cube 

25 

73 

2 

100 

Bread      .     . 

2  slices 

26 

12 

162 

200 

Butter     .     . 

1  pat 

0.5 

99.5 

0 

100 

Buttermilk 

li  glass 

34 

12 

54 

100 

Baked  apples 

3.3  oz. 

2 

5 

93 

100 

Gingerbread 

1  square 

12 

46 

142 

200 

Total  .     . 

436.7 

1015 

1608.3 

3060 

DIET   AND   NUTRITION 


205 


TABLE    OF    100-CALORIE    PORTIONS 
Food  Values 
Food  and  Dietetics,"  Norton,  Published  by  American  School  of 
Home  Economics,  Chicago 


Portion  Con- 

Pro- 

Car- 

Food 

taining  100 
Calories  (app.) 

Grams 

Ounces 

tein 

Fat 

bohy- 
drates 

Cooked  Meats 

Beef,  round,  boiled,  fat 

Small  serving 

36 

1.3 

40 

60 

0 

Beef,  round,    boiled. 

lean 

Large  serving 

62 

2.2 

90 

10 

0 

Lamb  chops,  boiled 

1  small  chop 

27 

0.96 

24 

76 

0 

Lamb,  leg,  roasted 

Ordinary  serving 

50 

1.8 

40 

60 

0 

Ham,  boiled,  fat 

Small  serving 

20.5 

0.73 

14 

86 

0 

Veal,  leg,  boiled  .     . 

Small  serving 

67.5 

2.4 

73 

27 

0 

Uncooked  Meats,  Edible 

Portion 

Beef  loin,  lean      .     . 

Ordinary  serving 

50 

1.8 

40 

60 

0 

Porterhouse  steak     . 

Small  serving 

36 

1.3 

32 

68 

0 

Sirloin  steak    .     .     . 

Small  serving 

40 

1.4 

31 

69 

0 

Beef  ribs     .... 

Ordinary  serving 

52 

1.8 

42 

58 

0 

Beef,  round     .     .     . 

Ordinary  serving 

63 

2.2 

54 

46 

0 

Chicken,  broilers 

Large  serving 

90 

3.2 

79 

21 

0 

Liver,  veal       .     .     . 

2  small  servings 

79 

2.8 

61 

39 

0 

Mutton,  leg     .     .     . 

Ordinary  serving 

50 

1.8 

41 

59 

0 

Pork  chops,  loin 

Very  small  serving 

27 

0.97 

18 

82 

0 

Turkey 

2  small  servings 

33 

1.2 

29 

71 

0 

Vegetables 

Asparagus,  cooked    . 

206 

7.19 

18 

63 

19 

Baked  beans,  canned 

Small  side  dish 

75 

2.66 

21 

18 

61 

Beans,  string,  cooked 

5  servings 

480 

16.66 

15 

48 

37 

Beets,  cooked       .     . 

3  servings 

245 

8.7 

2 

23 

75 

Cabbage     .... 

310 

11.0 

20 

8 

72 

Carrots,  fresh       .     . 

215 

7.6 

10 

8 

82 

Cauliflower   (as  pur- 

chased)   .... 

312 

11.0 

23 

15 

62 

Celery  (edible  portion) 

540 

19.0 

24 

5 

71 

Corn,  cooked  .     .     . 

One  side  dish 

99 

3.5 

13 

10 

77 

Cucumbers      (edible 

portion)    .... 

565 

20.0 

18 

10 

72 

Lettuce  (edible  por- 

tion)    

505 

18.0 

25 

14 

61 

Mushrooms  (as  pur- 

chased)   .... 

215 

7.6 

31 

8 

61 

Onions,  cooked     .     . 

2  large  servings 

240 

8.4 

12 

40 

48 

Parsnips,  cooked 

163 

5.84 

10 

34 

56 

Peas,  green,  cooked 

One  serving 

85 

3.0 

23 

27 

50 

Potatoes,  baked  .     . 

One  good-sized 

86 

3.05 

11 

1 

88 

206 


DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 


TABLE   OF    100-CALORIE  PORTIONS  — Continued 


Portion  Con- 

Pro- 

Car- 

Food 

taining  100 

Grams 

Ounces 

Fat 

bohy- 

Calories (app.) 

tein 

drates 

Potatoes,  mashed     . 

One  serving 

89 

3.14 

10 

25 

65 

Radishes      (as     pur- 

chased)   .... 

480 

17.0 

18 

23 

79 

Rhubarb  (edible  part) 

430 

15.0 

10 

27 

63 

Spinach,  cooked  .     . 

2  ordinary  servings 

174 

6.1 

15 

66 

19 

Tomatoes,  canned    . 

431 

15.2 

21 

7 

72 

Turnips  (edible  part) 

2  large  servings 

246 

8.7 

13 

4 

83 

Fruits,  dried 

Apples 

34 

1.2 

3 

7 

90 

Dates  (edible  part)  . 

3  large  servings 

28 

0.99 

2 

7 

91 

Figs  (edible  part)      . 

1  large  serving 

31 

1.1 

5 

0 

95 

Prunes  (as  purchased) 

3 

38 

1.35 

3 

0 

97 

Raisins 

25 

28 

1.0 

3 

9 

88 

Fruits,  fresh  or  cooked 

Apples  (as  purchased) 

2 

206 

7.3 

3 

7 

90 

Apples,  baked      .     . 

94 

3,3 

2 

5 

93 

Bananas  (edible  part) 

1  large 

100 

3.5 

5 

5 

90 

Cantaloupe      .     .     . 

243 

8.6 

6 

0 

94 

Grapes  (as  purchased) 

136 

4.8 

5 

15 

80 

Oranges      (as      pur- 

chased)   .... 

1  large 

270 

9.4 

6 

3 

91 

Peaches       (as      pur- 

chased)   .... 

3  ordinary 

290 

10.0 

7 

2 

91 

Strawberries    .     .     . 

2  servings 

260 

9.1 

10 

15 

75 

Watermelon     .      .      . 

760 

27.0 

6 

6 

88 

Dairy  Products 

Butter 

Ordinary  pat 

12.5 

0.44 

0.5 

99.5 

0 

Buttermilk       ,     .      . 

1§  glass 

275 

9.7 

34 

12 

54 

Cheese,  American     . 

I5  cubic  inch 

22 

0.77 

25 

73 

2 

Cream 

i  ordinary  glass 

-49 

1.7 

5 

86 

9 

Milk,  skimmed     .      . 

li  glass 

255 

9.4 

37 

7 

56 

Milk,  whole     .     .     . 

Small  glass 

140 

4.9 

19 

52 

29 

Cakes,  Pastries,  etc. 

Cake,  chocolate  layer 

i  ordinary  piece 

28 

0.98 

7 

22 

71 

Cake,  gingerbread    . 

1  ordinary  piece 

27 

0.96 

6 

23 

71 

Custard       .... 

Ordinary  cup 

122 

4.29 

26 

56 

18 

Doughnuts       .      .     . 

1  doughnut 

23 

0.8 

6 

45 

49 

Pie,  apple   .... 

i  piece 

38 

1.3 

5 

32 

63 

Pudding,  cream  rice 

Small  serving 

75 

2.65 

8 

13 

79 

Tapioca,  cooked  .     . 

Ordinary  serving 

108 

3.85 

1 

1 

98 

Sweets  and  Pickles 

Honey 

4  teaspoons 

30 

1.05 

10 

3 

87 

Molasses     .... 

35 

1.2 

0.5 

0 

99.5 

Olives,  green  (edible 

.  portion)  .... 

7 

32 

1.1 

1 

84 

15 

DIET  AND   NUTRITION 


207 


TABLE   OP   100-CALORIE   PORTIONS  —  Coniirmcri 


Portion  Con- 

Pro- 

TEIN 

Carbo- 

Food 

taining  100 

Grams 

Ounces 

Fat 

hy- 

Calories (app.) 

drates 

Pickles,  mixed      .     . 

415 

14.6 

18 

15 

67 

Sugar,  granulated     . 

3  teaspoons  or  1| 

lumps 

24 

0.S6 

0 

0 

100 

Syrup,  maple  .     .      . 

4  teaspoons 

35 

1.2 

0 

0 

100 

Nuts,  Edible  Portion 

Almonds      .... 

8  to  15 

15 

0.53 

13 

77 

10 

Cocoanut    .... 

16 

0.57 

4 

77 

19 

Hickory  nuts        .     . 

13 

0.47 

9 

85 

6 

Peanuts       .... 

13  double 

18 

0.62 

20 

63 

17 

Walnuts,  California 

About  6 

14 

0.48 

10 

83 

7    ■ 

Cereals  and  Breadstuffs 

Soda  crackers       .     . 

3i  Uneeda  biscuit 

0.83 

9.4 

20 

70.6 

Bread,  brown       .     . 

Ordinary  thick  slice 

43 

1.5 

9 

7 

84 

Bread,    white,   home 

made 

Ordinary  thick  slice 

38 

1.3 

13 

6 

81 

Corn  flakes      .     .     . 

Ordinary       cereal 

dish  full 

27 

0.97 

11 

1 

88 

Corn  meal  .... 

27 

0.96 

10 

5 

85 

Crackers,  Graham    . 

2 

23 

0.82 

9 

20 

71 

Hominy,  cooked 

Large  serving 

120 

4.2 

11 

2 

87 

Macaroni,  cooked     . 

Ordinary  serving 

110 

3.85 

14 

15 

71 

Oatmeal,  cooked 

1|  serving 

159 

5.6 

18 

7 

75 

Rice,  cooked    .     .     . 

Ordinary       cereal 

dish. 

87 

3.1 

10 

1 

89 

Shredded  wheat  .     . 

1  biscuit 

27 

0.94 

13 

4.5 

82.5 

Miscellaneous 

Eggs       ..... 

1  large 

59 

2.1 

32 

68 

0 

Soup,  beef  .... 

380 

13.0 

69 

14 

17 

Soup,  bean       ... 

Very  large  plate 

150 

5.4 

20 

20 

60 

Soup,  cream  celery  . 

2  plates 

180 

6.3 

16 

47 

37 

■Consomm^       .      .     . 

830 

29.0 

85 

0 

15 

Chocolate,  bitter 

1  square 

16 

0.56 

8 

72 

20 

Ice  cream    .... 

45 

1.6 

5 

62 

38 

Boiled  salad  dressing 

1.4 

10.2 

88.6 

1.2 

Chocolate,  beverage 

f  of  ordinary  cup 

84 

3 

8.8 

45.7 

44.5 

REFERENCE   BOOKS 


Physiological  and  Pathological  Chemistry 
Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition 
Practical  Dietetics    . 
Elementary  Study  of  Chemistr 
Human  Foods  . 
Physiological  Chemistry  . 
Pure  Foods 

Foods         .... 
Bacteria,  Yeast,  and  Molds 
Story  of  Bacteria 
Boston  Cook  Book    . 
Boston  Cooking  School  Cook  Book 
12    volumes    of    the    Library   of    Home 
Economics 

Bulletins  of   the    U.  S.   Department   of 

Agriculture 
Elements  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of 

Cookery      .         .         .         .         .         . 


G.  Bunge 

Henry  C.  Sherman,  Ph.D. 

Robert  Hutchinson 

McPherson  and  Henderson 

Harry  Snyder 

W.  B.  Halliburton 

John  C.  Olsen 

A.  H.  Church 

H.  W.  Conn 

T.  Mitchell  Prudden 

Mrs.  Mary  A.  Lincoln 

Fannie  M.  Farmer 

American  School  of  Home 
Economics,  Chicago 


Williams  and  Fisher 


208 


INDEX 


Abbreviations,  table  of,  IG. 
Acetic  fermentation,  136-137. 
Acids  and  alkalies  : 

experiments  with,  123,  124. 
proportion  to  use  in  cooking,  126. 
Air,  experiments  with,  7,  8. 
Albumen,  experiments  with,  69. 
Albumen  drinks,  188. 
Albuminized  milk,  186. 
Albuminoids,  71. 
Alcoholic  fermentation,  136,  137. 
Alkalies,  experiments  wdth,  123,  124. 
Alum  baking  powders,  126. 
Angel  food,  158. 
Apples : 

composition  of,  46. 
recipes  for 

apple  compote,  49. 

apple  pie,  152. 

apple  sauce,  48. 

apple  water,  188. 

baked  apples,  No.  1,  48. 

baked  apples,  No.  2,  48. 

dried  apple  sauce,  48. 

Dutch  apple  cake,  127. 

escalloped  apples,  164. 
varieties  of,  48. 

Bacon,  95. 

Bacteria,  50-51. 

Baking  powder  biscuit,  127. 

Baking  powder  mixtures, 

construction  rule  for,  126. 
Baking  powders,  124. 
Banana  fritters,  149. 
Batters  and  doughs,  126. 
Bavarian  cream,  179. 
Beans : 

baked,  40. 

baked  bean  soup,  61. 


Beans  —  Cont. 
salad,  172. 
succotash,  41. 
Beaten  frosting,  163. 
Bechamel  sauce,  38, 
Beef  : 

diagram  and  food  uses  of,  79. 
market  cuts,  illustrated,  80-82. 
recipes  for 

braised  beef,  90. 
broiled  beef  cakes,  190. 
cottage  pie,  97. 
dried  beef,  creamed,  97. 
Hamburg  steak,  96. 
pot  roast,  91. 
roast  beef,  92. 
roast  beef  gravy,  94. 
steak,  broiled,  94. 
steak,  pan  broiled,  94. 
stew,  89, 

tea,  beef,  No.  1,  187. 
tea,  beef.  No.  2,  187. 
to  judge,  80. 
Beet  sugar,  43. 
Berwick  sponge  cake,  158. 
Beverages,  117. 
Biscuit,  baking  powder,  127. 
Boiled  frosting,  162. 
Boiling,  experiments,  14,  15. 
Boiling  point,  16. 
Boston  brown  bread,  129. 
Bouillon,  65. 
Braised  beef,  90. 
Braising,  90. 
Bread: 

baking  of,  139. 

cost  of,  142. 

proportion  of  ingredients,  138- 

recipes  for 

Boston  brown,  149. 


209 


210 


INDEX 


Bread,  recipes  for  —  Cont. 
entire  wheat,  149. 
graham,  141. 
oatmeal,  141. 
rye,  141. 
white,  140. 
Bread  crumbs,  to  prepare,  149. 
Breaded  veal,  96. 
Bread  griddle  cakes,  131. 
Bread  pudding,  164. 
Breakfast, 

menu,  194. 

possibilities,  194. 
Broiled  beef  cakes,  ]90. 
Broiled  steak  and  chops,  94. 
Broiling : 

general  method,  93. 

pan  broiling,  94. 

time  table  for,  93. 

to  broil  with  gas,  94. 
Broths : 

general  discussion,  186. 

mutton,  188. 
Brown  mushroom  sauce,  96. 
Brown  sauce,  24. 
Brown  soup  stock,  64. 
Burning  point,  experiments,  146. 
Butter : 

composition  of,  110. 

renovated.  111. 
Butter  cakes,  156. 
Buttered  crumbs,  35. 
Butterine,  111. 

Cabbage : 
boiled,  40. 
escalloped,  40. 
salad,  174. 
Caffeine,  19,  118. 
Cakes : 

baking  of,  157. 

cost  of,  161. 

general  classification,  156. 

recipes  for 

angel  food,  158. 

Berwick  sponge,  158. 

devil's  food,  162. 

Dutch  apple,  127. 

one  egg,  161. 


Cakes,  recipes  for  —  Cont. 
Park  Street,  161. 
spice,  162. 
sponge,  157. 
white,  161. 
See  cookies. 
Calcium-,  2,  168. 
Calorie : 

definition,  196.  [203. 

one-hundred-calorie  portions,  202, 
table  of,  205.  • 
Candy  making : 
cost  of,  46. 
recipes  for 

cream  mints,  46. 
fondant,  45. 
Canning  and  preserving : 
cost  of  preserved  fruit,  54. 
general  method,  52. 
methods  of,  53. 
recipes  for 

Chili  sauce,  58. 
grape  juice,  55. 
peaches,  55. 
pears,  55. 
plums,  55. 
syrup  for  fruit,  54. 
tomatoes,  54. 
tomatoes  for  soup,  54. 
Caramel : 
recipes  for 
custard,  166. 
syrup,  131. 
Carbohydrates,  20. 
Carbon,  2,  3. 

Carbon  dioxide,  test  for,  8. 
Carrots : 

in  Bechamel  sauce,  37. 
to  prepare,  37. 
Cauliflower  soup,  66. 
Celery  soup,  60. 
Cellulose,  22. 
Cereals : 

amount  for  ten  cents,  28. 
cooking  of,  27. 
general  discussion,  25. 
table  of  composition,  26. 
time  table  for  cooking,  27. 
to  serve,  29. 


INDEX 


211 


Chiirlottti  Rufssc,  180. 
Cheese : 

care  of,  112. 
composition  of,  112. 
experiments  with,  112. 
recipes  for 

American  rarebit,  113. 
cottage,  113. 
croquettes,  150. 
filling  for  sandwiches,  176. 
fondue,  114. 
sandwiches,  176. 
Welsh  rarebit.  No.  1,  113. 
Welsh  rarebit.  No.  2,  113. 
Chemical  changes,  3. 
Chemical  formulas  and  equations,  66. 
Chemical  reactions  in  bread  making. 
Chemical  symbols,  5.  [137. 

Chemistry,  science  of,  3. 
Chicken : 
cost  of,  100. 
recipes  for 
creamed,  102. 
escalloped,  98. 
pressed,  99. 
roast,  102. 

gravy  for,  102. 
stuffing  for,  102. 
salad,  175. 
stewed,  102. 
Chili  sauce,  58. 
Chlorine,  2. 
Chops : 
lamb,  94. 
pork,  95. 
Classification  of  foods,  18. 
Cocoa  and  chocolate : 
beverage,  121. 
chocolate  frosting,  163. 
cocoa,  122. 
cost  of,  122. 
general  discussion,  121. 
Codfish : 
recipes  for, 
balls,  105. 
creamed,  105. 
Coffee  : 

boiled,  120. 
cost  of,  119. 


Coffee  —  Cant. 

experiments  with,  118. 
filtered,  120. 
general  discussion,  119. 
Collagen,  6. 
Combustion  : 

products  of,  8,  9. 
Composition  : 
of  body,  2. 
of  foods,  200. 
Compounds,  1. 
Conduction,    experiment   illustrating, 

11,  12. 
Construction  rule  for  baking  powder 

mixtures,  126. 
Convection,   experiment  illustratiiig, 

12. 
Cookies  : 
recipes  for 

cookies,  plain,  159. 
ginger  snaps,  160. 
hermits,  159. 
jumbles,  160. 
sand  tarts,  160. 
soft  ginger,  160. 
soft  molasses,  158. 
sour  cream,  159. 
sponge  drops,  159. 
Cooking,  processes  of,  14. 
Corn  : 

general  discussion,  25. 
recipe  for 
bread,  128. 
fritters,  41. 
muffins,  128. 
mush,  27. 
soup,  66. 
Cornstarch  pudding,  25. 
Cottage  pie,  97. 
Cottage  pudding,  164. 
Cracker  gruel,  188. 
Crackers,  for  soup,  67. 
Cranberries  : 

general  discussion,  49. 
recipe  for 
jelly,  49. 
pie,  154. 
sauce,  49. 
tart,  155. 


212 


INDEX 


Cream  of  tartar  baking  powder,  125. 
Cream  toast,  190. 
Creamy  sauce,  167. 
Croquettes : 
recipes  for 

cheese,  150. 

potato,  148. 

veal,  etc.,  148. 
Croutons,  67. 
Crullers,  148. 
Custards : 
recipe  for 

baked,  74. 

caramel,  166. 

pie,  153. 

soft,  179. 

Devil's  food  cake,  162. 
Dextrin  : 

experiments  with,  22. 

identification  test  for,  22. 
Diet  and  Nutrition,  196. 
Dietary : 

average  American,  198. 

one-hundred-calorie-portion 
method,  202. 

percentage     composition    method, 
Dinner  menus :  [199. 

family,  195. 

formal,  194. 
Doughnuts,  147. 
Dried  beef,  creamed,  97. 
Dumplings,  89. 
Dutch  apple  cake,  127. 

Eggs: 

composition  of,  72. 
prices  of,  72. 
recipes  for 

creamed,  74. 

eggnog,  188. 

egg  toast,  74. 

hard  cooked,  74. 
■    omelets  (see  omelets). 

poached,  74. 

salad,  174. 

sandwiches,  175. 

soft  cooked,  74. 
section  of  hen's,  72. 


Eggs  ^-  Cont. 

to  add  as  thickening,  38. 

to  preserve,  72. 
Elements : 

definition  of,  1. 

present  in  human  body,  2. 
Emulsion,  144. 
Equations,  chemical,  6. 
Equivalent  weights  and  measures,  17. 
Extractives,  61-71. 

Fat  proof  coating,  149. 
Fats: 

composition  of,  143,  144. 
cost  of,  146. 
emulsion  of,  144. 
saponification  of,  145. 
sources  of,  143. 
to  render,  151. 
Fehling  solution,  44. 
Fermentation,  136. 
Fish: 

composition  of,  103. 
recipes  for 
baked,  104. 
boiled,  104. 
broiled,  103. 
codfish  balls,  105. 
codfish,  creamed,  105. 
fried,  105,  149. 
lobster  farci,  106. 
oysters,  creamed,  107. 
oysters,  escalloped,  107. 
planked,  103. 
salad,  175. 
salmon  mold,  106. 

sauce  for,  106. 
sardines  on  toast,  106. 
turbot,  105. 
tests  for  freshness  of,  103c 
Flame,  9. 
Flash  point,  10. 
Fluorine,  2. 
Foamy  sauce,  167. 
Fondant,  45. 
Foods : 

classification  of,  18. 
preservation  of,  50. 
requirements,  196,  197. 


INDEX 


213 


Force  meat  balls,  67. 
French  fried  potatoes,  147. 
Fried  food,  objections  to,  146. 
Fried  potatoes,  147. 
Fritter  batter,  149. 

banana  fritt(!rs,  149. 

corn  fritters,  41. 
Frostings  for  cake : 

beaten,  163. 

boiled,  162. 

chocolate,  163. 

marshmallow,  163. 

plain,  162. 
Fruits : 

care  and  preparation  of,  47. 

composition  of,  46. 

methods  of  preserving,  53. 
Frying : 

cost  of  fats,  146. 

general  method,  145. 

rules  for  testing,  147. 
Fuels,  10. 
Fungi,  classification  of,  50. 

Gas,  10. 

Gelatine,  71,  177. 
Gelatine  desserts : 
recipes  for 

apple  compote,  49. 

Bavarian  cream,  179. 

Charlotte  Russe,  180. 

jellied  prunes,  178. 

lemon  jelly,  178. 

Neapolitan  pudding,  179. 

snow  pudding,  179. 

Spanish  cream,  180. 
Gingerbread,  130. 
Ginger  cookies,  160. 
Ginger  snaps,  160. 
Gliadin,  71. 
Globuhn,  61,  69,  70. 
Glucose,  43. 
Glutenin,  71. 
Graham  bread,  141. 
Graham  gems,  128. 
Graham  pudding,  165. 
Grape  jam,  57. 
Grape  jelly,  56. 
Grape  juice,  55. 


Grapes,  spiced,  57. 
Ciravy  : 
recipes  for 
chicken,  102. 
roast  beef,  92. 
Griddle  cakes : 
general  rule,  130. 
recipes  for 
bread,  131. 
sour  milk,  130. 
waffles,  131. 
Gruels : 

general  discussion,  187. 
recipes  for 
cracker,  188. 
flour,  188. 
oatmeal,  188. 

Ham : 

broiled,  95. 

sandwiches,  76. 
Hamburg  steak,  96. 
Hash,  97. 

Hashed  browned  potatoes,  35. 
Heat,  sources  of,  11. 
Heat  and  energy : 

requirement,  196. 

tables  for,  196,  197. 
Hermits,  159.  [28. 

Home  made  "ready  to  eat"  cereals, 
Hydrogen,  2,  4. 
Hydrogen  sulphide,  5. 

Ice,  117. 
Ice  cream : 
flavoring,  183. 
general  rule,  182. 
recipes  for 

cream  foundation,  183. 

custard  foundation,  183. 

strawberry,  183. 
to  freeze,  181. 
Ices : 

general  discussion,  181. 
recipes  for 

lemon,  182. 

pineapple,  182. 
suggestions  for,  183. 
to  freeze,  181. 


214 


INDEX 


Identification  tests : 

dextrin,  22. 

fat,  165. 

pectin,  47. 

protein,  69. 

starch,  21. 

sugar,  glucose,  44. 
Indian  pudding,  165. 
Inorganic  matter,  5, 
Invalid  cookery  : 

diet  for  convalescent,  184. 

light,  184,  189. 

liquid,  184,  185. 

to  set  tray,  185. 
Iodine,  2. 
Irish  stew,  90. 
Iron  : 

general  discussion,  169. 

table  of  iron  in  foods,  170. 

Jelly : 

due  to  pectin,  47. 
general  directions  for,  56. 
general  discussion,  55. 
recipes  for 

crab  apple,  56. 
cranberry,  49. 
grape,  56. 
lemon,  178. 
Jumbles,  160. 
Junket,  187. 

Kindling  point,  10. 

Lactic  fermentation,  136. 
Lactose,  43,  109. 
Lamb : 

chops,  94. 

diagram  and  food  uses  of,  84. 

market  cuts  (illustrations),  86. 

side  of,  85. 
Leavening,  methods  of,  123. 
Lemonade : 

recipes  for 
flaxseed,  189. 
plain,  189. 
Lemon  butter,  96. 
Lemon  cream,  190. 
Lemon  ice,  182. 


Lemon  jelly,  178. 
Lemon  pie,  154. 
Lemon  sauce,  127. 
Lettuce  : 

to  freshen,  171. 

to  keep,  172. 
Lettuce  salad,  174. 
Lettuce  sandwiches,  175. 
Lime : 

foods  poor  in,  169. 

foods  rich  in,  169. 
Lobster  farci,  106. 
Luncheon,  order  of  courses  for,  194. 

Macaroni : 

general  discussion,  41. 
recipes  for 

baked  with  cheese,  42. 
with  tomato  sauce,  42; 
Magnesium,  2. 
Maple  sugar,  43. 
Marmalades : 
recipes  for 

grape  jam,  57. 
peach,  57. 
pear  ginger,  57. 
plum  conserve,  56. 
spiced  grapes,  57. 
Marshmallow  frosting,  163. 
Measurements,  table  of,  16. 
Meat  and  vegetable  sauces,  24. 
Meats, : 

general  methods  of  cooking,  88. 
methods    of     cooking     in    water, 

62. 
proteins  present,  61. 
structure  of  fiber,  78. 
table  of  composition  of,  77. 
See     beef,     mutton,     pork,     veal, 

warmed-over  meats,  97. 
recipes  for 

cottage  pie,  97. 
escalloped  chicken,  98. 
hash,  97. 

minced  mutton,  98. 
meat  rechauffe,  98. 
meat  souffle,  98. 
pressed  chicken,  99. 
See  croquettes. 


INDEX 


215 


Menus : 

l)reakfast,  194. 

dinner,  194. 

lunch,  195. 
Meringue,  154. 
Milk: 

albuminized,  186. 

composition  of,  108. 

experiments  with,  110. 

general  discussion,  108. 

in  invalid  diet,  185. 

milk  products,  see  butter,  cheese. 

milk  toast,  190. 

pasteurized,  186. 

sterilized,  186. 
Mince  pie,  154. 
Mineral  foods : 

uses  in  body,  168. 
Molasses  cookies,  158. 
Molds,  50. 
Mushroom  sauce : 

brown,  96. 

white,  98. 
Mutton  : 

diagram  and  food  uses  of,  84. 

market  cuts,  illustrated,  86. 

side  of,  85. 

recipes  for 

chops,  broiled,  94. 
Irish  stew,  90. 
minced,  98. 
roast,  93. 

Nitrogen,  2,  4. 
Nitrogenous  foods,  4. 

See  protein. 
Nut  bread  : 

brown,  129. 

white,  129. 

Oatmeal,  25. 

Oatmeal  gruel,  188. 

Oats,  25. 

Oleomargarine,  tests  for.  111. 

Omelets  : 

general  rules  for,  75. 
recipes  for, 
beaten,  75. 
creamy,  75. 


Omelets,  recipes  for  —  Cord. 
ham,  75. 
potato,  76. 
Spanish,  76. 
One  egg  cake,  161. 
One-hundred-calorie  portions : 

dietary,  example  of,  204. 

explanation  of,  202. 

table  of,  205. 

to  compute,  203. 
Onions  : 

boiled,  40. 

general  discussion,  39. 

to  mince,  36. 
Orange  cream,  190. 
Orange  shortcake,  128. 
Organic  matter,  5. 
Oxidation,  8. 
Oxygen : 

description  of,  3. 

element,  2. 

experiments  with,  7. 
Oysters, 

creamed,  107. 

escalloped,  107. 

Parkerhouse  rolls,  140. 
Park  Street  cake,  161 
Parsley,  to  chop,  36. 
Pasteurization,  52. 
Pasteurized  milk,  186. 
Pastry : 

recipe  for,  152 

requisites  for  good,  159. 

shortening  for,  151. 

See  pie. 
Peach  marmalade,  57. 
Peach  preserves,  55. 
Pear  ginger,  57. 
Pear  preserves,  55. 
Pectin,  indentification  test  for,  47. 
Peppers,  stuffed  green,  39. 
Phosphate  baking  powders,  125. 
Phosphorus,  2-5. 
Physical  change,  2. 
Physics,  science  of,  3. 
Pickles,. 

cucumber,  58. 

sweet,  57. 


216 


INDEX 


Pie: 

recipes  for 
apple,  152. 
cranberry,  154. 
custard,  153. 
lemon,  154. 
mince,  154. 
pumpkin,  153.     - 
Pineapple  ice,  182. 
Pinwheel  biscuit,  128. 
Plants,  classification  of,  50. 
Plum  conserve,  56. 
Plum  preserves,  55. 
Pop-overs,  130. 
Pork: 

diagram  and  food  uses  of,  87. 
general  discussion,  86. 
recipes  for 
bacon,  95. 
chops,  95. 
ham,  broiled,  95. 
side  of,  88. 
Potassium,  2. 
Potatoes : 

general  discussion,  33. 
recipes  for 
au  gratin,  35. 
baked,  34. 
boiled,  33. 
cakes,  36. 
creamed,  35. 
croquettes,  148. 
escalloped,  34. 
French  fried,  147. 
fried,  147. 

hashed  browned,  35. 
Lyonnaise,  34. 
mashed,  34. 
puff,  36. 
salad,  174. 
soup,  cream  of,  60. 
stewed,  35. 
Pot  roast,  91. 
Protein  : 

alcohol-soluble,  71. 
classification  of,  70. 
conjugated,  71. 
experiments  with,  69,  70. 
general  discussion,  68. 


Protein  —  Cont. 

identification  test  for,  69. 
in  meat,  61. 
in  wheat,  133. 
other  forms  of,  71. 
phospho-protein,  71. 
requirement  by  body,  191. 
Puddings  : 
recipes  for 
bread,  164. 
corn  starch,  25. 
cottage,  164. 
custard  : 
baked,  74. 
caramel,  166. 
soft,  179.     . 
escalloped  apple,  164. 
graham,  165. 
Indian,  165. 
prune  whip,  166. 
rice,  164. 
sponge,  166. 
suet,  165. 

tapioca  cream,  166. 
See  gelatine  desserts. 
Pudding  sauces : 
See  sauces. 

Radiation,    experiments   illustrating, 

Rarebit, 

American,  113. 
Welsh,  No.  1,  113. 
Welsh,  No.  2,  113. 
Relation  of  food  to  the  body,  1. 
Rice : 

general  discussion,  26. 
recipes  for 
baked,  28. 
muffins,  129. 
pudding,  164. 
to  wash,  28. 
Roasting : 

general  method,  91. 
time  table  for  meats,  92. 
recipes  for 
beef,  92. 
chicken,  102. 
mutton,  93. 


INDEX 


217 


Roasting,  recipes  for — Cont. 

veal,  92. 
Rolls,  Parkerhouse,  140. 

Salads : 

food  value,  171. 
recipes  for 

cabbage,  174. 

chicken,  174. 

egg,  174. 

fish,  175., 

lettuce,  174. 

potato,  174. 
suggestions  for,  172. 
to  marinate,  172. 
to  mix,  172. 
Salad  dressings : 
recipes  for 

cooked,  173. 

French,  174. 

mayonnaise,  173. 

whipped  cream,  174. 
Sand  tarts,  160. 
Sandwiches  : 
recipes  for 

cheese,  176. 

cheese  filling,  176. 

egg,  176. 

ham,  176. 

lettuce,  175. 
Saponification,  145. 
Sauces,  meat  and  vegetable  : 
methods  of  making,  24. 
proportion  of  flour  for,  24. 
recipes  for 

bechamel,  38. 

brown,  24. 

brown  mushroom,  96. 

drawn  butter,  104. 

lemon  butter,  96. 

salmon,  106. 

thick  white  (for  croquettes),  24. 

tomato,  42. 
.   white,  24. 

white  mushroom,  98. 
Sauces,  pudding : 
recipes  for 

caramel  syrup,  131. 

creamy,  167. 


Sauces,  recipes  for  —  Cont. 
foamy,  167. 
lemon,  127. 
vanilla,  167. 
yellow,  167. 
Scones,  127. 

Sherbets,  suggestions  for,  181. 
SiHcon,  2. 

Snow  pudding,  179. 
Soap  making,  145. 
Sodium,  2. 

Sodium  bicarbonate,  124. 
Soups : 

cream  soups,  59. 
recipes  for 

baked  bean,  61. 
cauliflower,  66. 
celery,  60. 
clear  tomato,  60. 
corn,  66. 
potato,  60. 
spinach,  61. 
tomato,  59. 
to  bind  or  thicken,  59. 
made  with  stock,  59,  61,  63. 
recipes  for 
bouillon,  64. 
stock,  64. 

stock,  brown,  63,  64. 
stock,  white,  66. 
tomato,  64. 
vegetable,  64. 
to  clear  soup,  64. 
Sour  cream  cookies,  159. 
Sour  milk  griddle  cakes,  130. 
Spanish  cream,  180. 
Spice  cake,  162. 
Sponge  cake  (without  water),  157. 

Berwick  (with  watar),  158. 
Sponge  drops,  153. 
Sponge  pudding,  160. 
Stages  in  sugar  boiling,  15. 
Starch : 

experiments  with,  21. 
identification  test  for,  21. 
methods   of   thickening   with,    23- 
24. 
Sterilization,  52. 
SteriHzed  milk,  186. 


218 


INDEX 


Stewing : 

general  method,  89. 

recipes  for 
beef  stew,  89. 
Irish  stew,  90. 
veal  stew,  90. 
Stoves  and  ranges,  13. 
Strawberry  ice  cream,  183. 
Succotash,  40. 
Suet  pudding,  165. 
Sugar : 

cane,  43. 

experimsnts  with,  43. 

general  discussion,  43. 

glucose,  44.  . 

lactose,  43. 

maple,  43. 

stages  in  boiling,  15. 

test  for,  44. 
Sulphur,  2,  4. 
Symbols  of  elements  in  body,  5. 

Table  service,  191. 
Table  setting,  192. 
Tannin,  tests  for,  118. 
Tapioca  cream,  166. 
Tarts : 

cranberry,  155. 
general  rule,  155. 
Tea: 

cost  of,  119. 
experiments  with,  118. 
general  discussion,  120. 
recipe  for 

Russian,  121. 
stimulant,  117. 
Toast : 

boxes,  107. 

directions  for  making,  189. 
recipes  for 
cream,  190. 
milk,  190. 
sticks,  67. 
water,  189. 
Tomatoes  : 

general  discussion,  38." 
recipes  for 
creamed,  38. 
sauce,  42. 


Tomatoes,  recipes  for  —  Cont 
stewed,  38. 
stuffed,  39. 
to  can,  54. 
to  can  for  soup,  54. 
to  prepare,  38. 
Tomato  soups : 
clear,  60. 
cream,  50. 
stock,  64. 
Turbot,  105. 
Turnips : 

general  discussion,  36. 
recipes  for 
creamed,  37. 
cups  with  pea  filling,  37.' 
to  boil  and  mash,  37. 
to  prepare,  37. 

Vanilla  sauce,  167. 
Veal : 

diagram  and  food  uses  of,  82. 
general  discussion,  83. 
recipes  for 

breaded,  baked,  96. 
chops,  95. 
croquettes,  148. 
loaf,  96., 
roast,  92. 
souffle,  98. 
stew,  90. 
side  of,  83. 
Vegetables  : 

amount  nutrition  for  ten  cents,  31. 
■  general  composition  of,  31. 
general  methods  of  cooking,  32. 
table  of  composition,  30. 
to  prepare,  32. 
Vegetable  soup,  65. 

Waffles,  131. 
Warmed-over  meats,  97. 
Washington  pie,  158. 
Water  : 

composition  of,  115. 

distilled,  115. 

hard  and  soft,  117. 

purification  of,  116. 

sources  of,  116. 


INDEX 


219 


Water  toiist,  189. 
Wheat : 

coiuposition  of,  132. 

experiments  with,  134. 

proteins  in,  133. 

section  of  grain  of,  132. 
White  l)read,  140. 
White  cake,  161. 
White  mushroom  sauce,  98. 
White  soup  stock,  66. 


Yeast : 

a  fungus,  50. 

drawing  of,  135. 

(xperiments  with,  137. 

growth  of,  135. 

raw  potato,  recipe  for,  139. 
Yellow  sauce,  107. 


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